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Water
Water Sources
Surface : River, Creek, Pond & Lake Deep and shallow wells, spring & mine 7/59
Ground Sea
: :
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Impurities of Water
Generally water is not suitable for any use without some treatment.
Impurities present are harmful depending upon
Nature, source and amount present End use of the water. Tolerance limits for various industries.
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ANIONIC
Bircarbonate Carbonate Hydroxide Sulphate Chloride Phosphate Silica & Organic matter
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Impure Water
Harmful effects of impure water : Scale - deposition Corrosion Decolorisation of product Taste, colour, microbiological contamination imparted due to impurities
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Water Analysis
The chemical examination of water is very important for :
Selecting suitable water supply Selecting proper treatment scheme Designing the plant Trouble shooting
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2.
3.
4.
Equivalent per million (epm) epm = ppm eq.wt. of ion ppm as CaCO3 = ppm as ion x 50 eq.wt. of ion Grains per gallon as CaCO3 = ppm as CaCO3 17.1
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WATER SAMPLING.
Turbidity : It is finely divided suspended matter, clay silt and/or organic matter. Conductivity :The ability of a solution to carry electric current. Measured as micro mhos/cms.
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Alkalinity
The total of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide alkalinity Equivalent Mineral Acidity (EMA) Chlorides, sulphates and nitrates associated with cations Hardness :Sum of Calcium and Magnesium. Other divalent or trivalent cations such as Iron, Barium, 15/59
Total cation. Total hardness + Sodium + Potassium. Total anion. EMA + Silica + CO2
Residual Chlorine The amount of free chlorine after satisfying chlorine demand (usually 0.1 to 0.5 ppm) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
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Total Suspended Solids (TSS) The solids which can be filtered off. Silica It is soluble silica or reactive silica The non - reactive silica
Colloidal Silica :
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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The amount of oxygen consumed for oxidising organic and oxidisable inorganic matter.
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Water Treatment
The basic water treatment processes are limited. Combination and variation of these are used to treat water for desired end use.
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Chemical Precipitation
Hardness
and alkalinity removal by lime soda process (hot or cold) Iron removal
Electrodialysis
Osmosis Evaporation
Reverse
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Ion Exchange
Ion exchange is a reversible process. The ions exchanged with stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of ions of the same sign.
After the ion exchange, the exchanger material can be brought back to original form by suitable reaction, called regeneration.
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Ambient temperature operation Instantaneous treated water Take care of fluctuation of load Easy waste disposal Cheaper to operate
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Alkalinity
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Water treatment Purification and decolourisation of sugar Purification and recovery of drugs, vitamins, amino acids, etc. Purification of DMF, Glyoxal, Caprolactum. Recovery of metals like Thorium, Uranium, Gold Silver, etc.
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Catalyst in esterification, condensation, etc. In medicines for tablet disintegration, toxic removal as antacids. In water analysis Purification of brine. Removing hazardous constituants from industrial effluents.
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Ion Exchangers
Insoluble solid material carrying exchangeable cations or anions
Cation Exchange
Anion Exchange
WAC
SAC
WBA
SBA
Type I
Type II
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Size : Purely hydraulic and kinetic influence on the ion exchange process. 0.3 - 1.2 mm size is satisfactory for industrial applications. Content : It is bound water related to cross linking. About 45 - 55 depending on type of resin. Gives valuable information on resin under use
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Moisture
Density : Ion exchange resins are sold on volume basis, hence density measurement is necessary. Density difference of cation and anion exchange resins is used for MB operations.
Porosity :
Related to degree of cross linking, influences capacity & selectivity. Functional groups are present throughout the resin body. Pores provides path for exchanging & exchanged ions. Pores can be micro or macro in size.
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Lower Cross Linking : More moisture and swelling. Soft and mechanically weak. Less chemical and oxidation resistance. More exchange rate
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Swelling : It is volume change due to change in surrounding medium. Depends upon medium, resin matrix. Ionic group present and type of counter ions
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Exchange Capacity : It is the capacity obtained from the total quantity of counter ions that is capable of exchange per unit weight or volume of either dry or swollen resin Capacity : The capacity that could be realised in a column under a set of selected conditions.
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Operating
It is influenced by cross linking, functional groups, particle size, solvent and temperature.
Stability
During service and regeneration, resin is subjected to expansion and contraction. Oxidising agents attack the resin. There is mechanical attrition. All these influence resin life and economics of operation 35/59
Selectivity
The exchange potential increased with increasing valence. Na+ < Ca++ < Al+++ < Th++++ If valence is constant, exchange potential increases with increase in atomic number. Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba F < Cl < Br < I 36/59
Selectivity (Contd...)
At higher concentration the difference in exchange potentials of ions of difference valence diminish and in some cases the lower valence has the higher exchange potential (Na+ Vs Ca++)
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Selectivity (Contd...)
Softening
(Ca) Cl + (Mg
Ca ) ) R + NaCl Mg)
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Partial Demineralization
By Split Stream (Softener + Dealkalizer) (When alkalinity is high and hardness is permanent.) Strong Acid Cation Exchanger in H+ form :
Ca Mg Na ) HCO3 ) Cl + H - R ) SO4 Ca) Na) (HCO3 Mg) R+H (Cl (SO4
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SAC :
pH range 0 - 14 Excellent physical & chemical stability Swelling Na+ H+ 7% H+ form used in DM process and MB Reg. by 4-8% HCl or 1.5 - 5% H2SO4 (*) Max op. temperature 120 C (250 8F) (*) Regeneration is stepwise NA+ form used in softening process Reg by 5 - 15% NaCl solution Max op. temperature 140 C (2808F)
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High exchange capacity Excellent physical & chemical stability pH range 5 - 14 Reg. by 2 - 4% HCl or 0.7 to 4% H2SO4 (*) (*) Regeneration is stepwise High regeneration efficiency Regeneration by 120% of stoichiometric qty
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(Contd..)
Can be regenerated thoroughfare Higher selectivity for divalent cations. Hence cannot be regenerated directly by salt Takes cations associated with alkalinity. Hence used for dealkalizing. Max. op. temp. 100 C (212 F) Swelling H+ Na+ 100%
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No salt splitting capacity in OH- form. Can take anions only associated with strong acids. High reg. efficiency. Reg. by 120% of stoichiometric qty. Reg. by 1-5% NaOH Can be regenerated thoroughfare High operating capacity. pH range 0 - 9 Max. op. temperature 80 C Swelling OHCl- 20% 44/59
Used for DM process and MB Can split salts. Reg. con. 4 - 8% NaOH Swelling ClOH- 9% Max op. temp 60 C (140 F) for type II 80 C (175 F) for type I Both the types can removal all anions
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Type II has high operating capacity More susceptible to oxidation Loosing of SBC is bit faster Regenerate some what more easily Type I has better thermal and oxidative stability, maintain SBC for a longer period Type I has better resistance to organic fouling than Type II
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Demineralization
Strong
Acid Cation Exchanger : Ca ) HCO3 Ca) (HCO3 Mg) Cl + R - H Mg) R+H (Cl Na ) SO4 Na) (SO4 Anion Exchanger : (HCO3 (HCO3 H (Cl + R - OH R - (Cl +H2O (SO4 (SO4
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Regeneration Process
The
process to bring back the exhausted resin to original or usable form is regeneration. The reaction is opposite to service reaction. There are two methods for regeneration cocurrent and counter current method.
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Back Washing
Back washing is done for : Loosening the bed Re-classifying the bed To remove dirt and filtered matter To separate resin in MB
By back washing, more uniform distribution of fluid is obtained in subsequent down-flow operation.
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Back Washing
Pressing water (*) in upward direction to expand the bed to about 50%.
(*) Raw water for SAC. Decationised (and degassed) water for SBA. SBA outlet for MB
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Regeneration (Injection)
According to the resin by HCl, H2SO4 or NaOH, the major factors affecting the degree of regeneration are :
Composition of the exhausted bed Flow rate Contact time Temperature Purity of regenerant Conc. of regenerant Amount of regenerant applied (Reg. level)
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Slow Rinse
It is extended regeneration. Hence at regeneration flow rate generally by 2 BV of water
Fast Rinse :
To remove traces of regenerant. service flow rate. Done at
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minimise leakage and get better quality effluent No frequent back wash given. Provision is made to avoid fluidizing of the bed and then regenerant is passed in opposite direction of service Back wash is given only when necessary but followed by double regeneration
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Major Foulants :
Turbidity and mud Oil & grease. Iron & Calcium. Microbiological &Organic fouling. Silica fouling. Oxidation due to Cl2. Thermal degradation -- Variation in temperature.
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Trouble Shooting
Major causes in general for less OBR :
Insufficient regeneration Increased load Over running in previous run Fouling Resin loss (quantity & quality) Malfunctioning of up-stream unit/s Excessive rinsing
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Trouble Shooting
Major causes in general for poor quality :
Mechanical problem Chemical precipitation, silica precipitation. Improper separation and improper mixing (MB) Wrong or misleading analysis hence apparent poor quality
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Resin Sampling
Sample should be taken from the entire length of column Label should indicate the source, date of collection and type of resin Sample quantity should be sufficient for different tests. About 500 ml. for one type and 1000 ml for MB is sufficient
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Resin commissioning.
Cleaning
& inspection of vessel. Column testing or hydrotest of vessel Checking pressure drop with & without resin. Resin charging in vessel Backwash & checking resin bed height. Conditioning of resin before use. Double regeneration.
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Resin testing.