REVISION ON RIVER

Factors

Hjulstrom curve
Veloci Discharg Helicoidal
ty e
Flooding
Flows Laminar
Braided channel
floodplain

delta Turbulence
Landforms process
es
Waterfall Transportation Erosion
Gorges meanders
 Velocity & discharge
Qn. 1. Define what is velocity &
discharge.
Velocity: mean speed of flow over
time(ms2) at a
point in a river channel or over a set
distance.

Discharge: Volume of water passing a

particular
Qn. 2. State and describe three factors
affecting
velocity.
(i) Channel shape in cross-section
(ii) Channel steepness
(iii) Roughness of river beds and banks
 River flow
Qn 1. Describe what is meant by Helicoidal,
Turbulence and Laminar flow. Use
diagrams to explain them.
Laminar flow : horizontal movement of water
(rarely
found), common in lava flow.
Turbulent: a series of erratic eddies, both
vertical and
horizontal, in a downstream direction.
Helicoidal flow: a corkscrew
movement, in a
meander, it is responsible for moving
material
from the outside of one meander bend
and
depositing on the inside of the next
bend.
 Process
Qn. 1. Describe four ways of river
erosion.
• Corrasion: occurs when the river
picks up materials and rubs it along
its bed and banks, wearing them
away by abrasion, effective during
flood.

• Attrition: As bedload moved

downstream, boulders collide with
• Hydraulic action: The sheer force of
the
water as the turbulent current hits
banks
(outside of meander) pushes water
into cracks.
The air in cracks compressed, pressure
increased
and in time bank will collapse.

• Solution/corrosion: It is related to
Qn. 2. Identify and describe
four ways how a river
transports
•
its load
Saltation: when pebbles, sand and gravel
(bedload) are lifted up by current and bounced
along the bed in a hopping motion.
• Traction: when largest boulders and cobbles
(bedload) roll or slide along the bed.
• Suspension: very fine particle such as clay and
silt (suspended load) are dislodged and carried
by turbulence in a fast flowing river.
• Solution: water flowing within a river channel
contains acids (e.g. carbonic acid from
precipitation) dissolve the load such as
limestone in running water and removed in
solution.
 Landforms
Define each terms and describe using
diagrams
how they are formed, give examples.
(iii)Waterfall and gorges
(iv)Meander
(v)Braided channel
(vi)Floodplain
(vii)Delta
 Waterfall & Rapids
Waterfall: A waterfall form when a
river, after
flowing over relatively hard rock meets
a band
of less resistant rock flow over the
edge of a
plateau. Over a period of years, the
edges of this
shelf will gradually break away and the
waterfall
Rapid:
Rapids develop where the gradient of
the river
bed increases without a sudden break
of slope
(as in a waterfall) or where stream
flows over
a series of gently dipping bands of
harder
rock. Rapid increase the turbulence of
a river
 Meanders
Meanders are bends in the course of
the river
channel. They often begin to appear as
a river
approaches its middle course and the
gradient
of channel becomes less steep.
-Meanders are a result of helicoidal
flow in
Which the fastest current (thalweg)
spiral
downstream in a corkscrew fashion.
-This movement results in erosion in
outside
bend of a meander to form river cliff
and
deposition on inside bend to form slip-
off slope.
 Braided channel
What and how is it formed?
A braided stream has islands/eyots of
deposited
Coarser materials such as sand and gravel
within
the channel, formed due to variation in
discharge such
as in semi-arid environment and temperate
climate.
High discharge due to heavy rainfall and
snowmelt thus
 E D C B

A
Name the features
Marked A-F

F
 Delta
It is composed of fine sediment which
is
deposited when a river losses energy
and
competence as it flows into an area of
slow
moving water such as a lake or sea.
 Types of delta
(i)Arcuate (fan-shaped delta)
having rounded, convex outer margin
e.g. Nile,
(ii)Cuspate (tooth’s delta): where
material
Brought down by a river is spread out
evenly on
either side of its channel. E.g. Tiber
(iii)Bird’s foot: where the river has
many
 Floodplain
A floodplain is a mostly flat area of
land
bordering a river subjected to periodic
flooding.
It is made of silts and sands which
have been
deposited over many years by the
river.
LEVEES:
When river overflows its banks, the increase
in friction
produced by the contact with the floodplain
causes
material to be deposited. The coarsest
material is
dropped first to form a small, natural
embankment
(levee) alongside the channel. During
subsequent
periods of low discharge, further deposition
will occur
 Flooding
1. Describe how flooding can be
predicted
2. State main causes of flooding
3. List down effects of flooding
4. State ways how flooding can be
reduced
5. How human actions affect flows
within a river channel.
 Prediction of flooding
• Recurrent interval: Statistical
studies can be undertaken to
attempt to determine the probability
and frequency of high discharges of
streams that cause flooding. 
• Flood hazard mapping : Maps
constructed based on aerial
photographs and satellite images of
prior floods to help to determine the
affected areas.
3. Forecasting: forecast when flooding
will occur base on correlation
between amount of rainfall, degree
of ground saturation, degree of
permeable soil, and amount of
vegetation so to give early warning
for people.
 Main causes
1. Torrential rainfall produce by
convectional thunderstorm, tropical
cyclones or monsoon.
2. River flooding occurs when a river
channel no longer able to contain
water flowing within it, causes:
Heavy rainfall, silting, landslide,
increase storm flow due to
urbanisation, reduction in channel
size etc.
3. Coastal flooding: Low-lying coastal
 Human causes:
1. Deforestation: remove forest
reduced interception and increase
landslides, soil erosion and overland
flow. Deposition in river channel
caused raised in river bed risk to
flooding.

3. Dam building: Farraka Dam in India

1971, raised river bed, dry season
dam reduces discharge and
encouraging sedimentation.
3. Global warming: Rise sea level,
surface water
on floodplain took longer to infiltrate.

4. Urbanisation: roads and

embankment
obstacles to free drainage of water.
 Effects of flooding
Bangladesh: flood 1998, over 1000
people killed,
million homeless, large farmland and
properties was washed away, shortage
of
drinking and food, respiratory
infections
affecting large number of people-
diarrhoea
 Ways to reduce
1. Raised river banks-reduce flooding
since hold more water but
expensive to straightened and
heighten.
2. Dams and reservoirs-multipurpose
use but high cost to construct and
maintain and lead sedimentation
over time.
3. Straightening river channels-reduce
flooding
in area but lead flooding downstream

4. Warning system-less flood damage,

property
loss & deaths but little use if people
ignore,
need good communication networks
 How human action affect
flows in a river channel?
Building dams, dredging, abstraction
surface and
underground water, irrigation etc-
effect flows
and storage.
 Hjulstrom curve
Qn 1. Define what is Hjulstrom curve

Qn.2. Name type of sediment that can be eroded and

transported at
low velocity.

Qn. 3. Describe velocity to transport and erode silt and

clay and
boulders. Why?

Qn. 4. Name the sediments that can be transported at

any/all velocity.

Qn. 5. Define competence and capacity, critical velocity

& settling velocity.