STAG6433

Applied Sedimentology & Sequence Stratigraphy

DELTA

Deltas
Delta is applied to any deposit, subaerial or subaqueous, formed by fluvial sediments that build into a standing body of water (sea), where rivers discharge greater quantities of clastic sediment that can be removed by wave and current activity.
Not all rivers have deltas. "Conventional deltas", fed by meandering rivers. Contrast braid deltas and fan deltas

Deltas
Every delta is the result of a balance of forces that interact in the vicinity of the river mouth.
A river carries sediment to the coast and deposits it beyond the mouth. Coarsest stuff is dumped by river mouth, fines a carried further away. Tidal currents and waves rework the newly deposited sediments, affecting the shape and form of the resulting structure.

Sedimentation processes
The distribution and characteristics of deltas are controlled by a complex set of interrelated fluvial and marine processes and environmental conditions.
These factors include; climate water & sediment discharge river-mouth processes nearshore wave nearshore current tides winds

Density contrasts
The general form of the deltaic deposit depends on the density contrast between the river water and the basinal water.
River outflow may be; more dense (hyperpycnal flow) equally dense (homopycnal) less dense (hypopycnal)

Density contrasts
Hyperpycnal: inertia-dominated
Where the river inflow is more dense than the basinal water (eg due to sediment concentration), sediment moves along the base of the basin. It is usually deposited quite rapidly, but the finer portions may move farther as sediment gravity (turbidity) flows. These are generally associated with coarser sediment loads, and resulting deltas are small, elongate and generally steeply dipping.

Hypopycnal: buoyancy domoinated

The density of the freshwater plus suspended sediment load is less than that of the seawater. In this case the fine-grained suspended sediment tends to ride on the top of the basinal water as a buoyant plume and is carried well out into the receiving basin. Finer sediment is carried farther out and is deposited quite slowly from suspension. It may be carried and distributed by offshore currents and is eventually deposited as prodelta muds. This results in lower depositional slopes and more areally extensive deposits.

Distributary Mouth Bar

When a reasonably fast river current hits a still body of water seawater, the momentum of the current can carry sediment a fair distance from river mouth.
This produces a relatively elongate distributary mouth bar. Coarse sediments drop first, finer ones later, with fine silts and clays often carried beyond the delta front. As system progrades, top of mouth bar is scoured and pushed down-flow.

Distributary Mouth Bar

Underwater parts of distributary channels still have levees. Fast currents move suspended and bedload, and as these currents mix along the channel sides with still water, current locally slows and sediment is deposited on levees.

Distributary Mouth Bar

When a slow river current hits a still body of water, its sediment is rapidly deposited right at the river mouth. Current is not always strong enough to reentrain the mouth bar sands, so the river current is forced to flow around the bar. This causes a split in the channel.

Environmental complexes:
All deltas can be divided into subaerial and subaqueous component, and each of which can be further subdivided. Delta to three sub-environment; 1. Delta plain 2. Delta front (also known as delta slope) 3. Prodelta

Delta sub-environments

Crevasse splay

Swamps

Delta channels Interdistributary bay Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope

Delta top environments

Delta plain

Delta front environments

Prodelta

Environmental complexes:
When looking at a cross-section of an entire delta, such as the above, the delta plain sediments are often called topset beds, the delta front sediments the foreset beds, and the prodelta sediments the bottomset beds.

Delta Plain
Mainly the subaerial portion of the delta. Low topographic relief. It has been built by progradation of the delta.
Crevasse splay

Swamps

Delta channels Interdistributary bay

Delta top environments

Delta plain

Delta Plain
In a well-developed, regionally-extensive plain the river splits into a number of distributary channels separated by marshes, backswamps and lakes. The channels switch frequently, and periodically the feeder river switches by avulsion. Lots of stranded waterbodies, and micro deltas where distribuaries enter lakes.

Crevasse splay

Swamps

Delta channels Interdistributary bay

Delta top environments

Delta plain

DELTA SUBAERIAL

Delta Plain

Delta Plain
Branching distributary channels that leave meandering-river-like deposits (channel, levee, etc. deposits). Tidal influences ==> bi-directional currents.
Interdistributary areas: like river flood plains with silts, clays, crevasse splays, overbank sands), but with addition of vast swamps (peats/coals) and, on seaward edge, shallow marine/brackish bays. Beaches: beach sands and sand dunes
Crevasse splay
Swamps

Delta channels Interdistributary bay

Delta top environments

Delta plain

Delta Plain
Sediments are dominated by fluvial sands and muds, maybe closely associated with lake, swamp and marsh deposits, or tidal flat and bay deposits.
Site of coal accumulation (peats with more than 80% organic material) in humid climates. May have evaporitic lake deposits in arid climates. Muddy, peaty lake and overbank sediment with lenses of sand.
Crevasse splay
Swamps

Delta channels Interdistributary bay

Delta top environments

Delta plain

Peats deposits

Delta Front
Relatively steeply dipping part of delta that represents main site of progradation into a body of water.
River sands (and any minor gravel) are immediately deposited near channel mouth on distributary mouth bar. Silts and clays rapidly around mouth bar. Together, rapidly build out delta and form the delta front.

Swamps

Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope Delta front environments

Prodelta

Delta Front
This is the site of much of the active deltaic deposition.
Most of the coarse fluvial sediment bypasses the delta plain and is carried by the distributary channels to the river mouth, where it is rapidly dumped. At the mouths of the distributaries the coarsest sediment is deposited as distributary mouth bars which may be reworked by waves and tides to form beaches and barriers.
Swamps

Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope Delta front environments

Prodelta

Delta Front
Finer grain sizes are deposited farther out The size and extent of these bars depends on the amount of coarse sediment supply and also the longevity of distributary channels.
In quiet water, high mud settings the channels may remain fixed for a long time, and the bars may lengthen and prograde to from elongate bar fingers, as in the modern mississippi ("birdfoot delta").
Swamps

Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope Delta front environments

Prodelta

Prodelta
The prodelta is the area where fine material settles out of suspension. It represents the deeper water offshore where the bottom is unaffected by waves or tides. It is commonly very bioturbated, but in the absense of organisms will consist of finely laminated silt and mud. The laminations reflect differences in river discharge and hence in the suspended load of the freshwater plume. It merges seaward with the fine grained sediment of the basin floor.
Swamps

Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope Delta front environments

Prodelta

Prodelta
Presence of silty lamination is commonly taken to mark the influence of the delta.
Sediment is being rapidly deposited on a slope, so the potential for both softsediment deformation and the generation of sediment gravity flows is high. Therefore slump, debris flow and turbidity current deposits may be found in the prodelta.
Swamps

Subaqueous mouth bars Delta slope Delta front environments

Prodelta

Delta Growth / Delta progradation

As time passes, delta front sediments build to sea level. River then forces delta to grow seaward, causing delta to prograde. Distributary channels lengthen, new delta plain sediments prograde over delta front sediments, delta front sediments prograde over prodelta sediments, and prodelta sediments prograde over open marine sediments.
Given this behavior, it is easy to see that delta progradation produces a generally coarsening upwards sequence capped by delta plain sediments.

Delta Growth / Delta progradation

On some deltas, particularly those that are river dominated, the site of active sediment accumulation will switch from lobe to lobe as a result of avulsion. This means that one lobe will undergo active progradation, while the other lobes, relatively starved of sediment, will slowly subside as the soupy sediments dewater and compact.

N Abandoned delta lobes 100 km

Present active delta lobe

Delta Growth / Delta progradation

On some deltas, particularly those that are river dominated, the site of active sediment accumulation will switch from lobe to lobe as a result of avulsion. This means that one lobe will undergo active progradation, while the other lobes, relatively starved of sediment, will slowly subside as the soupy sediments dewater and compact.

There are two sites of deposition: one in front of a lobe (A), one in front of an interdistributary area (B). Avulsion activates the lobes according to the numbers on each lobe, arrows show direction of lobe progradation. Each lobe will prograde out into the sea, then through subsidence retreat back a certain distance.

Delta Growth / Delta progradation

When the lobe marked 1 is active, a coarsening upwards sequence accumulates at A. When the lobe switches to 2, the sediment source is more distant, so finer sediments accumulate. As the lobe progrades outward, the sediment source becomes closer so the sediments coarsen upwards. With a switch to 3, the distant sediment source again results in a slow deposition of very fine sediments. As 3 progrades, another coarsening upwards cycle is laid down. When the switch goes to 4, the sediment source may be so distant that only a slow accumulation of very fine sediments results. When the switch comes back to 5, a another CUS can accumulate. By this time, enough sediment may have accumulated that the reactivation of lobe 1-5 may start accumulation of the fine sands of the distributary mouth bar. If the channel migrates overhead, you may see a channel FUS followed by typical flood plain/delta plain sediments: fine clays, silts, crevasse splay sands, plus the coals that characterize many delta plains.

Most deltaic sectcions consist of a series of stacked cycles. A B

Secondary Sedimentary Features

The delta is a giant mass of rapidly accumulated, squishy sediment. It is unstable. Several things can happen as the system gravitationally stabilizes.
Slumping- A mass of delta front detaches and slides along a slippery sediment layer. There is a
scarp at the top and lots of folded bedding at the toe of the slump. Some large slump blocks can scoot straight out over the prodelta.

Load structures, flame structures and ball and pillow structures- Formed when
sand is rapidly deposited on top of soft mud. Sand settles into mud in various ways

Sand dikes- Rapidly deposited sand capped by muds/silts. Loose sand holds a lot of extra
water in between the sand grains. If the muddy top deposits of the delta are under tension, a crack can open up that allows a water/sand mixture to inject itself into the overlying strata.

Mud volcanoes- When layers of sand overlie mud deposits, the sand can be denser than the
fluid-rich mud. This mud can rise upwards in a large blob, until it reaches the surface. Then it pushes its mud onto the surface and forms a mud volcano.

Turbidites- Parts of a delta can become over-steepened. Eventually, parts of the oversteepened delta front can collapse. These causes a turbidity current.

Classification of deltas
It is now recognised that there are a wide variety of delta types.

Classification of deltas
It is now recognised that there are a wide variety of delta types and three major types are: River-dominated delta Wave-dominated delta Tidal-dominated delta Modern deltas Rhone
Gravel & sand Sand Mud & silt
Tide dominated

Gravel

Fluvial dominated

Mississippi Amazon
Wave dominated

Skeidararsandur Ganges-Brahmaputra

Niger

Classification of deltas
It is now recognised that there are a wide variety of delta types and three major types are: River-dominated delta Wave-dominated delta Tidal-dominated delta

Classification of deltas

Mississippi: river-dominated

Nile: the original delta

20 km 50 km

GangesBrahmaputra: tide-dominated
10 km

Rhone: wave-dominated
10 km

Controls on delta environments and facies

Sediment abundance and composition: 1. Climate 2. Relief in drainage basin 3. Sediment yield in drainage basin 4. Water discharge Physical processes: 5. River-mouth processes (density contrasts etc.) 6. Wave power 7. Tidal range 8. Wind regime 9. Nearshore current regime

Geometric constraints 10. Slope of shelf 11. Tectonics of basin 12. Geometry of basin

River-dominated delta
The type of delta system is dominated by a river that builds a delta pretty much willy nilly into the sea.
River dominated deltas are therefore those where other effects, such as much reworking by waves or by tides is minor. These deltas tend to build delta lobes out into the sea. These lobes might have little more than the distributary channel and its levee exposed above sea level. In which case the delta looks something like a bird's foot

20 km

Occur when wave and tide action are relatively weak: river progrades with levees into basin (also called Birds foot delta) Example: Mississippi delta

River-dominated delta

River-dominated delta

River-dominated delta

River channel Delta plain Crevasse splay Interdistributary bay

Delta (distributary) channel

Levees Interdistributary bay

Mouth bars (below water)

River-dominated delta

Distributary channel

Crevasse splay

Main depositional processes and products of fluvialdominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Process Product/facies

Delta plain: -distributary channels. Traction by river flow. Depn from suspension (floods); plant growth. Traction (during floods). Traction (during floods). Depn from suspension. Depn from suspension (during floods); plant growth; soil devpt. Depn from suspension (marine floods); evap'n.

-levees. -interdistrib. bays -crevasse channels. -crevasse splays. -distal bay. -marsh (humid climate). -evaporitic plain (arid climate).

Channelized sand; sharp base; fining up; cross stratn & cross lamn. Silt; roots.

Cross-stratified sand. Graded sand beds (cm-dm) with asymmetrical ripples. Mud. Mud; peat; soil profiles.

Mud; evaporite nodules.

Main depositional processes and products of fluvialdominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Delta front: -distributary mouth bar. Process Product/facies

-Depn from suspension (from river-fed overflow plumes); -depn from suspn depn from suspn & traction by river-fed underflows (floods) +/- storm waves; -slumps; -slides. Depn from suspension. Shelf or slope processes

Proximal sand to distal mud; -cm-dm graded sand beds; +/- asym. or sym. ripples;

-structureless or chaotic units; -tilted but unfolded units. Mud. Shelf or slope products.

-distal delta front. Prodelta.

River-dominated delta

River channel Delta plain Crevasse splay Interdistributary bay

Delta (distributary) channel

Levees Interdistributary bay

Mouth bars (below water)

Pro delta muds

Wave-dominated delta
Where rivers dump into the sea in areas of significant wave build up.
The action of waves is to constantly rework the delta front. Sediment is carried off down the longshore drift direction. This may cause the delta to have a more cuspate shape, where beveled by wave action. The shoreline down drift of the river mouth may have much better developed and extensive beaches and even sandy spits can form in the down drift direction.

10 km

Muds carried down the river to the delta can get carried much farther down drift leaving large areas of muddy shoreline in those areas away from the river mouths.

Occur where wave action is strong: sands at river mouth are reworked by waves to form shore-parallel bars Example: Rhone delta

Wave-dominated delta

Main depositional processes and products of wavedominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Delta plain: -Distributary channels. -Beach bars, amalgamated & abandoned. Process Product/facies

Traction by river flow.

Reworking by wind; plant growth.

Channelized sand; sharp base; fining up; cross stratn & cross lamn. Well sorted sand with cross stratification; roots.

-Back-bar marsh (humid climate).

-Evaporitic plain (arid climate).

Depn from suspension (during Mud; peat; soil profiles. floods); plant growth; soil devpt
Depn from suspension (marine floods); evap'n. Mud; evaporite nodules.

Main depositional processes and products of wavedominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Delta front: -Beach: -Aeolian -Backshore. Process Product/facies

Wind. Same as foreshore (during storms only). Unidirectional flows by breaking waves (swashbackwash).

Well sorted sand; cross dunes. stratification. Same as foreshore.

-Foreshore (between lo tide).

Sand with low-angle planar cross stratn (beach stratification) or gravel.

-Shoreface between Asym. oscillatory flows due to Cross-stratified sand and/or wavebase & low tide. shoaling waves; longshore drift. gravel.

Wave-dominated delta

Pro delta muds

Tide-influenced delta
Where river mouths hit the sea in areas affected by large tidal ranges, the delta shape can be extensively reshaped by the twice a day flood and ebb tidal currents moving in and out of the river mouth.
This usually happens in bays and estuaries where the river mouth is protected from much wave activity. The relentless in and out currents of tides can sculpt the sediment into elongate tidal bars. At the head of the bay there may be a classic looking delta, in this location referred to as a bay-head delta, but farther seaward is a zone of lots of tidal bars, islands and inlets caused by tide reworking. A vertical stratigraphic section through this type of deposit will be dominated by lots of muds and sands that show bidirectional (ebb-directed and flood directed) cross bedding and not much evidence of wave reworking (e.g. beaches) nor or strongly prograding rivers

10 km

Occur where tide action is strong: sands and muds are reworked by tidal currents Example: Ganges- Brahmaputra delta

Tide-influenced delta

Main depositional processes and products of tide-dominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Delta plain: -distributary channels. Process Product/facies

Traction by river flow, combined with tidal base; currents. Alternating deposition from suspension & tidal traction.

Channelized sand; sharp fining up; cross stratn & cross amn (bidirectional).

-tidal flat.

Mm-cm alternation of mud & rippled sand (lenticular/ wavy/flaser bedding). As above; sharp base; inclined heterolithic stratn.

-tidal creeks.

As above. Depn from suspension (during floods); plant growth. Suspension (floods); evaporation.

-marsh (humid climate). -evaporitic plain (arid climate).

Mud; peat; soil development.

Mud; evaporite nodules.

Main depositional processes and products of tide-dominated deltas:

Environment/ sub-environment Delta front: -tidal ridges. Process Product/facies

Traction by tidal currents; depn Cross-stratd sand from suspn (slack water). (bidirectional); mud drapes. Alternating deposition from suspension & tidal traction. Mm-cm alternation of mud & rippled sand (lenticular/ wavy/flaser bedding).

-distal delta front.

Tide-influenced delta

Pro delta muds

Facies sequences
Common metre-scale fining-up FU, formed by: (1) distributary channel lateral migration, or by abandonment; (2) tidal sand ridge migration (intrinsic or forced); (3) Tidalflat progradation; and (4) tidal-creek point bar migration. Common metre-scale coarsening-up CU, formed by: (1) tidal sand ridge migration; (2) Beach progradation; (3) interdistributary bay filling. 10s metre scale coarsening-up CU, due to progradation of fluvial- or wavedominated deltas.

Facies sequences
- Fluvial-dominated.

Facies sequences
- Wave-dominated.

Facies sequences
- Tide-dominated.

Facies sequences

River channel Delta plain Crevasse splay Interdistributary bay

Delta (distributary) channel

Levees Interdistributary bay

Mouth bars (below water)

Facies sequences

Crevasse splay (cs) Mouth bars (mb)

Delta channel (dc) Interdistributary bay (ib)

Delta slope (ds)

Prodelta (pd)

Facies sequences

Crevasse splay (cs) Mouth bars (mb)

Delta channel (dc) Interdistributary bay (ib)

Delta slope (ds)

dc mb

Prodelta (pd)

ds

pd

Facies sequences

ib Delta channel (dc) Interdistributary bay (ib) mb ds

Crevasse splay (cs) Mouth bars (mb)

pd Delta slope (ds) dc mb Prodelta (pd) ds

pd

Facies sequences

cs mb ds Crevasse splay (cs) Mouth bars (mb) Delta channel (dc) Interdistributary bay (ib)

ib mb ds

pd

pd Delta slope (ds) dc mb Prodelta (pd) ds

pd

Facies sequences

cs mb ds Crevasse splay (cs) Mouth bars (mb) mb Delta channel (dc) Interdistributary bay (ib)

ib mb ds

pd

pd Delta slope (ds) dc mb

ds

Prodelta (pd)

ds

pd pd

Geometry of potential reservoir sand bodies:

- Sheet (wave-dominated delta plain prograded beach), m-10s m thick. - Shoestring (distributary channels on top of prograded mouth bars). - Sheet (prograded belt of tidal sand ridges), m-10s m thick. - Lobe (crevasse splays, in river-dominated deltas).

Modern examples
-River dominated, Mississippi. -Wave dominated, Senegal. -Tide dominated, Klang-Langat, Malaysia (Coleman et al. 1970).

Interpreted ancient examples:

- Fluvial-dominated delta: Carboniferous lacustrine deltas, England (de Raaf et al. 1965; Elliott 1976; Collinson 1988). - Wave-dominated delta: Cretaceous San Miguel Fm, Texas (Weise 1980); Jurassic Brent Group, North Sea (Morton et al. 1992); - Tide-influenced delta: Tertiary Niger delta, Africa (Weber 1971).

Key attributes for interpreting facies associations as conventional-delta deposits:

- Tens of metres to kilometres thick. - Sand and shale, in subequal proportions. - Two facies associations common: (1) shales, sands, paleosoils and coals (delta plain); and (2) shales and sands lacking evidence for emergence (delta front). - Common 10s metre scale CU sequences, and metre-scale FU and CU. - Prominent evidence for emergence, such as desiccation cracks, paleosoil profiles, evaporites (arid climate) or coal with roots (humid), reflecting aerial dominance of the emergent delta plain. - Generally low diversity/low density fauna and i

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