Chapter 8

The Central Nervous System

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CNS
 Consists of:
 Brain.
 Spinal cord.
 Receives input from
sensory neurons.
 Directs activity of
motor neurons.
 Association neurons
maintain
homeostasis in the
internal
environment.
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Embryonic Development

 Groove appears in ectoderm to fuse to form neural

tube by 20th day after conception. Neural tube
eventually forms the CNS.
 During 5th week, modified:
 Forebrain: telencephalon and diencephalon.
 Midbrain: unchanged.
 Hindbrain: metencephalon and myelencephalon.
 Part of ectoderm where fusion occurs becomes
neural crest.
 Neural crest forms ganglia of PNS.
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Embryonic Development (continued)

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Embryonic Development (continued)

 Telencephalon grows disproportionately

forming 2 the hemispheres of the
cerebrum.
 Ventricles and central canal become
filled with cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).
 CNS composed of gray and white matter.
 Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies
and dendrites.
 White matter (myelin) consists of axon
tracts.
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Cerebrum

 Only structure of the telencephalon.

 Largest portion of brain (80% mass).
 Responsible for higher mental functions.
 Corpus callosum:
 Major tract of axons that functionally
interconnects right and left cerebral
hemispheres.
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Cerebrum (continued)
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Cerebral Cortex
 Characterized by numerous convolutions.
 Elevated folds: gyri.

Depressed groves: sulci.
 Frontal lobe:
 Anterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere.
 Precentral gyri:

Contains upper motor neurons.

Involved in motor control.
 Body regions with the greatest number of
motor innervation are represented by
largest areas of motor cortex.
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Cerebral Cortex (continued)

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Cerebral Cortex (continued)

 Parietal lobe:
 Primary area responsible for perception
of somatesthetic sensation.
 Body regions with highest densities of
receptors are represented by largest
areas of sensory cortex.
 Temporal lobe:
 Contain auditory centers that receive
sensory fibers from cochlea.
 Interpretation and association of
auditory and visual information.
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Cerebral Cortex (continued)

 Occipital Lobe:
 Primary area responsible for vision
and coordination of eye movements.
 Insula:
 Implicated in memory encoding.
 Integration of sensory information
with visceral responses.
 Coordinated cardiovascular response
to stress.
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Visualizing the Brain

 X-ray computed tomography (CT):
 Complex computer manipulations of data obtained from x-
ray absorption by tissues of different densities.
 Soft tissue.
 Positron-emission tomography (PET):
 Radioisotopes that emit positrons are injected into blood
stream.
 Collision of positron and electron result in emission of gamma
rays.
 Pinpoint brain cells that are most active.

Brain metabolism, drug distribution.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
 Protons (H+) respond to magnetic field, which align the
protons.
 Emit a radio-wave signal when stimulated.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

 Measures
synaptic
potentials
produced at cell
bodies and
dendrites.
 Create electrical
currents.
 Used clinically do
diagnose epilepsy
and brain death.
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EEG Patterns
 Alpha:
 Recorded from parietal and occipital regions.
 Person is awake, relaxed, with eyes closed.
 10-12 cycles/sec.
 Beta:
 Strongest from frontal lobes near precentral gyrus.
 Produced by visual stimuli and mental activity.
 Evoked activity.
 13-25 cycles/sec.
 Theta:
 Emitted from temporal and occipital lobes.
 Common in newborn.
 Adult indicates severe emotional stress.
 5-8 cycles/sec.
 Delta:
 Emitted in a general pattern.
 Common during sleep and awake infant.
 In awake adult indicate brain damage.
 1-5 cycles/sec.
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EEG Sleep Patterns

 2 types of EEG patterns during
sleep:
 REM (rapid eye movement):
 Dreams occur.
 Low-amplitude, high-frequency
oscillations.
 Similar to wakefulness (beta waves).
 Non-Rem (resting):
 High-amplitude, low-frequency waves
(delta waves).
 Superimposed on these are sleep spindles:
 Waxing and waning bursts of 7-14 cycles/sec.
 Last for 1-3 sec.
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Basal Nuclei (basal ganglia)

 Masses of gray matter
composed of neuronal
cell bodies located
deep within white
matter.
 Contain:
 Corpus striatum:

Caudate nucleus.
 Lentiform nucleus:
 Putman and globus
pallidus.
 Functions in the
control of voluntary
movements.
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Cerebral Lateralization

 Cerebral dominance:
 Specialization of one
hemisphere.
 Left hemisphere:
 More adept in
language and
analytical abilities.
 Damage:

Severe speech
problems.
 Right hemisphere:
 Most adept at
visuospatial tasks.
 Damage:
 Difficulty finding way
around house.
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Language
 Broca’s area:
 Involves articulation of speech.

 In damage, comprehension of speech in unimpaired.

 Wernicke’s area:
 Involves language comprehension.

 In damage, language comprehension is destroyed,

but speech is rapid without any meaning.

 Angular gyrus:
 Center of integration of auditory, visual, and

somatesthetic information.
 Damage produces aphasias.

 Arcuate fasciculus:
 To speak intelligibly, words originating in Wernicke’s
area must be sent to Broca’s area.
 Broca’s area sends fibers to the motor cortex which
directly controls the musculature of speech.
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Emotion and Motivation

 Important in the neural
basis of emotional states
are hypothalamus and
limbic system.
 Limbic system:
 Group of forebrain nuclei
and fiber tracts that
form a ring around the
brain stem.
 Center for basic
emotional drives.
 Closed circuit (Papez
circuit):
 Fornix connects

hippocampus to
hypothalamus, which
projects to the thalamus
which sends fibers back
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Emotion and Motivation (continued)

 Areas or the hypothalamus and limbic

system are involved in feelings and
behaviors.
 Aggression:

Amygdala and hypothalamus.
 Fear:

Amygdala and hypothalamus.
 Feeding:
 Hypothalamus (feeding and satiety centers).
 Sexual drive and behavior:
 Hypothalamus and limbic system.
 Goal directed behavior (reward and
punishment):
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Memory
 Short-term:
 Memory of recent events.
 Medial temporal lobe:
 Consolidates short term into long term
memory.
 Hippocampus is critical component
of memory.
 Acquisition of new information,
facts and events requires both the
medial temporal lobe and
hippocampus.
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Long-Term Memory
 Consolidation of short-term memory into long-
term memory.
 Requires activation of genes, leading to protein
synthesis and formation of new synaptic connections.
 Altered postsynaptic growth of dendritic spines in area of
contact.
 Cerebral cortex stores factual information:
 Visual memories lateralized to left hemisphere.
 Visuospatial information lateralized to right
hemisphere.
 Prefrontal lobes:
 Involved in performing exact mathematical
calculations.
 Complex, problem-solving and planning activities.
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Long-Term Potentiation
 Type of synaptic learning.
 Synapses that are 1st stimulated at high frequency
will subsequently exhibit increased excitability.
 In hippocampus, glutamate is NT.
 Requires activation of the NMDA receptors for
glutamate.

Glutamate and glycine or D-serine binding and
partial depolarization are required for opening of
channels for Ca2+ and Na+.
 May also involve presynaptic changes:
 Binding of glutamate to NMDA receptors and
simultaneous depolarization, open receptor channels
for Ca2+.

Ca2+ causes long-term potentiation in postsynaptic
neuron, release of NO from postsynaptic neuron.
 NO acts as a retrograde messenger, causing release of
NT.
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Neuronal Stem Cells in

Learning and Memory
 Neural stem cells:
 Cells that both renew themselves through
mitosis and produce differentiated neurons
and neuroglia.
 Hippocampus has been shown to
contain stem cells (required for long-
term memory).
 Neurogenesis:
 Production of new neurons.
 Indirect evidence that links neuogenesis
in hippocampus with learning and
memory.
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Thalamus and Epithalamus

 Thalamus:
 Composes 4/5 of the diencephalon.
 Forms most of the walls of the 3rd ventricle.
 Acts as relay center through which all sensory
information (except olfactory) passes to the
cerebrum.
 Lateral geniculate nuclei:
 Relay visual information.
 Medial geniculate nuclei:
 Relay auditory information.
 Intralaminar nuclei:
 Activated by many sensory modalities.
 Projects to many areas.

Promotes alertness and arousal from sleep.
 Epithalamus contains:
 Choroid plexus where CSF is formed.
 Pineal gland which secretes melatonin.
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Hypothalamus
 Contains neural centers for hunger,
thirst, and body temperature.
 Contributes to the regulation of sleep,
wakefulness, emotions, sexual arousal,
anger, fear, pain, and pleasure.
 Stimulates hormonal release from
anterior pituitary.
 Produces ADH and oxytocin.
 Coordinates sympathetic and
parasympathetic reflexes.
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Pituitary Gland

 Posterior pituitary:
 Stores and releases ADH (vasopressin) and
oxytocin.
 Hypothalamus produces releasing and
inhibiting hormones that are transported
to anterior pituitary.
 Regulate secretions of anterior hormones.
 Anterior pituitary:
 Regulates secretion of hormones of other

endocrine glands.
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Midbrain
 Contains:
 Corpora quadrigemina:
 Superior colliculi:
 Involved in visual reflexes.

Inferior colliculi:
 Relay centers for auditory information.
 Cerebral peduncles:

Composed of ascending and descending fiber
tracts.
 Substantia nigra:

Required for motor coordination.
 Red nucleus:
 Maintains connections with cerebrum and
cerebellum.
 Involved in motor coordination.
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Hindbrain
 Metencephalon:
 Pons:
 Surface fibers connect to
cerebellum, and deeper fibers
are part of motor and sensory
tracts.
 Contains several nuclei
associated with cranial nerves
V, VI, VII.
 Contains the apneustic and
pneumotaxic respiratory
centerss.
 Cerebellum:
 Receives input from
proprioceptors.
 Participates in coordination of
movement.
 Necessary for motor learning,
coordinating different joints
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Hindbrain (continued)

 Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata):

 All descending and ascending fiber tracts

between spinal cord and brain must pass

through the medulla.

Nuclei contained within the medulla include VIII,
IX, X, XI, XII.

Pyramids:
 Fiber tracts cross to contralateral side.

 Vasomotor center:

Controls autonomic innervation of blood vessels.
 Cardiac control center:
 Regulates autonomic nerve control of heart.
 Regulates respiration with the pons.
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Reticular Formation

 Reticular Formation:
 Complex network of nuclei and nerve fibers

within medulla, pons, midbrain, thalamus

and hypothalamus.
 Functions as the reticular activating system

(RAS).

Non specific arousal of cerebral cortex to
incoming sensory information.
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Ascending Spinal Tracts

 Convey sensory
information from
cutaneous
receptors,
proprioceptors
and visceral
receptors to
cerebral cortex.
 Sensory fiber
tract decussation
may occur in
medulla or spinal
cord.
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Descending Spinal Tracts

 Pyramidal
(corticospinal) tracts
descend directly
without synaptic
interruption from
cerebral cortex to
spinal cord.
 Function in control of
fine movements that
require dexterity.
 Reticulospinal tracts
(extrapyramidal):
 Influence movement
indirectly.
 Gross motor
movement.
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Cranial and Spinal Nerves

 Cranial nerves:
 2 pairs arise from neuron cell bodies in forebrain.
 10 pairs arise from the midbrain and hindbrain.
 Roman numerals refer to the order in which the nerves
are positioned from front of the brain to the back.
 Most are mixed nerves containing both sensory and
motor fibers.
 Spinal nerves:
 31 pairs grouped into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5
lumbar, 5 sacral, and l coccygeal.
 Mixed nerve that separates near the attachment of
the nerve to spinal cord.
 Produces 2 roots to each nerve.
 Dorsal root composed of sensory fibers.
 Ventral root composed of motor fibers.
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Reflex Arc
 Unconscious motor
response to a
sensory stimulus.
 Stimulation of
sensory receptors
evokes APs that are
conducted into spinal
cord.
 Synapses with
association neuron,
which synapses with
somatic motor
neuron.
 Conducts impulses to
muscle and
stimulates a reflex
contraction.
 Brain is not directly