Photonic Crystals

Photonic Crystals
From Wikipedia:

Photonic Crystals are periodic optical
nanostructures that are designed to affect the
motion of photons in a similar way that
periodicity of a semiconductor crystal affects the
motion of electrons. Photonic crystals occur in
nature and in various forms have been studied
scientifically for the last 100 years.
Wikipedia Continued
Photonic crystals are composed of periodic dielectric or metallo-dielectric
nanostructures that affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves (EM) in the
same way as the periodic potential in a crystal affects the electron motion by
defining allowed and forbidden electronic energy bands. Photonic crystals
contain regularly repeating internal regions of high and low dielectric constant.
Photons (as waves) propagate through this structure - or not - depending on
their wavelength. Wavelengths of light that are allowed to travel are known as
modes, and groups of allowed modes form bands. Disallowed bands of
wavelengths are called photonic band gaps. This gives rise to distinct optical
phenomena such as inhibition of spontaneous emission, high-reflecting omni-
directional mirrors and low-loss-waveguides, amongst others.
Since the basic physical phenomenon is based on diffraction, the periodicity of
the photonic crystal structure has to be of the same length-scale as half the
wavelength of the EM waves i.e. ~350 nm (blue) to 700 nm (red) for photonic
crystals operating in the visible part of the spectrum - the repeating regions of
high and low dielectric constants have to be of this dimension. This makes the
fabrication of optical photonic crystals cumbersome and complex.
Photonic Crystals:
A New Frontier in Modern Optics
MARIAN FLORESCU

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
If only were possible to make materials in which
electromagnetically waves cannot propagate at
certain frequencies, all kinds of almost-magical things
would happen
Sir John Maddox, Nature (1990)
Two Fundamental Optical Principles

Localization of Light
S. John, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58,2486 (1987)

Inhibition of Spontaneous Emission
E. Yablonovitch, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58 2059 (1987)
Photonic crystals: periodic dielectric structures.
interact resonantly with radiation with wavelengths comparable to the
periodicity length of the dielectric lattice.
dispersion relation strongly depends on frequency and propagation direction
may present complete band gaps Photonic Band Gap (PBG) materials.
Photonic Crystals
Guide and confine light without losses
Novel environment for quantum mechanical light-matter interaction
A rich variety of micro- and nano-photonics devices
Photonic Crystals History
1987: Prediction of photonic crystals
S. John, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58,2486 (1987), Strong localization of photons
in certain dielectric superlattices
E. Yablonovitch, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58 2059 (1987), I nhibited spontaneous
emission in solid state physics and electronics

1990: Computational demonstration of photonic crystal
K. M. Ho, C. T Chan, and C. M. Soukoulis, Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 3152 (1990)

1991: Experimental demonstration of microwave photonic crystals
E. Yablonovitch, T. J. Mitter, K. M. Leung, Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 2295 (1991)

1995: Large scale 2D photonic crystals in Visible
U. Gruning, V. Lehman, C.M. Englehardt, Appl. Phys. Lett. 66 (1995)

1998: Small scale photonic crystals in near Visible; Large scale
inverted opals

1999: First photonic crystal based optical devices (lasers, waveguides)

Photonic Crystals- Semiconductors of Light
Semiconductors

Periodic array of atoms





Atomic length scales

Natural structures

Control electron flow

1950s electronic revolution
Photonic Crystals

Periodic variation of dielectric
constant




Length scale ~

Artificial structures

Control e.m. wave propagation

New frontier in modern optics
Natural opals
Natural Photonic Crystals:
Structural Colours through Photonic Crystals
Periodic structure striking colour effect even in the absence of pigments
Requirement: overlapping of frequency gaps along different directions
High ratio of dielectric indices
Same average optical path in different media
Dielectric networks should be connected
J. Wijnhoven & W. Vos, Science (1998) S. Lin et al., Nature (1998)
Woodpile structure Inverted Opals
Artificial Photonic Crystals
Photonic Crystals
complex dielectric environment that controls the flow of radiation
designer vacuum for the emission and absorption of radiation
Photonic Crystals: Opportunities
Passive devices
dielectric mirrors for antennas
micro-resonators and waveguides

Active devices
low-threshold nonlinear devices
microlasers and amplifiers
efficient thermal sources of light

Integrated optics
controlled miniaturisation
pulse sculpturing

Defect-Mode Photonic Crystal Microlaser
Photonic Crystal Cavity formed by a point defect
O. Painter et. al., Science (1999)
3D Complete Photonic Band Gap
Suppress blackbody radiation in the infrared and redirect and enhance thermal energy into visible
Photonic Crystals Based Light Bulbs
S. Y. Lin et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. (2003)
C. Cornelius, J. Dowling, PRA 59, 4736 (1999)
Modification of Planck blackbody radiation by photonic band-gap structures
Light bulb efficiency may raise from 5 percent to 60 percent
3D Tungsten Photonic
Crystal Filament
Solid Tungsten Filament
Solar Cell Applications

Funneling of thermal radiation of larger wavelength (orange area) to thermal radiation
of shorter wavelength (grey area).

Spectral and angular control over the thermal radiation.

Fundamental Limitations
switching time switching intensity =
constant
Incoherent character of the switching
dissipated power
Foundations of Future CI
Cavity all-optical transistor
(3)

I
out

I
in

I
H

H.M. Gibbs et. al, PRL 36, 1135 (1976)
Operating Parameters
Holding power: 5 mW
Switching power: 3 W
Switching time: 1-0.5 ns
Size: 500 m
Photonic crystal all-optical transistor
Probe Laser
Pump Laser
Operating Parameters
Holding power: 10-100 nW
Switching power: 50-500 pW
Switching time: < 1 ps
Size: 20 m
M. Florescu and S. J ohn, PRA 69, 053810 (2004).
Single Atom Switching Effect
Photonic Crystals versus Ordinary Vacuum
Positive population inversion
Switching behaviour of the atomic inversion
M. Florescu and S. J ohn, PRA 64, 033801 (2001)
Long temporal separation between incident laser photons
Fast frequency variations of the photonic DOS
Band-edge enhancement of the Lamb shift
Vacuum Rabi splitting
Quantum Optics in Photonic Crystals
T. Yoshie et al. , Nature, 2004.
Foundations for Future CI:
Single Photon Sources

Enabling Linear Optical Quantum Computing and Quantum Cryptography

fully deterministic pumping mechanism
very fast triggering mechanism
accelerated spontaneous emission
PBG architecture design to achieve
prescribed DOS at the ion position

M. Florescu et al., EPL 69, 945 (2005)
M. Campell et al. Nature, 404, 53 (2000)
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (I)
Photo-resist layer exposed to multiple laser beam interference
that produce a periodic intensity pattern
3D photonic crystals fabricated
using holographic lithography
Four laser beams interfere to form a
3D periodic intensity pattern
10 m

O. Toader, et al., PRL 92, 043905 (2004)
O. Toader & S. John, Science (2001)
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (II)
S. Kennedy et al., Nano Letters (2002)
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (III)



Transport
Properties:

Photons
Electrons
Phonons


Photonic Crystals
Optical Properties

Rethermalization
Processes:

Photons
Electrons
Phonons
Metallic (Dielectric)
Backbone
Electronic
Characterization
Multi-Physics Problem:
Photonic Crystal Radiant Energy Transfer
Summary
Designer Vacuum:
Frequency selective control of
spontaneous and thermal emission
enables novel active devices

PBG materials: Integrated optical micro-circuits
with complete light localization
Photonic Crystals: Photonic analogues of semiconductors that
control the flow of light
Potential to Enable Future CI:
Single photon source for LOQC
All-optical micro-transistors
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Research and Technology:
Photonic materials by design
Multiphysics and multiscale analysis
Wikipedia Continued
Photonic crystals are composed of periodic dielectric or metallo-dielectric
nanostructures that affect the propagation of electromagnetic waves (EM) in the
same way as the periodic potential in a crystal affects the electron motion by
defining allowed and forbidden electronic energy bands. Photonic crystals
contain regularly repeating internal regions of high and low dielectric constant.
Photons (as waves) propagate through this structure - or not - depending on
their wavelength. Wavelengths of light that are allowed to travel are known as
modes, and groups of allowed modes form bands. Disallowed bands of
wavelengths are called photonic band gaps. This gives rise to distinct optical
phenomena such as inhibition of spontaneous emission, high-reflecting omni-
directional mirrors and low-loss-waveguides, amongst others.
Since the basic physical phenomenon is based on diffraction, the periodicity of
the photonic crystal structure has to be of the same length-scale as half the
wavelength of the EM waves i.e. ~350 nm (blue) to 700 nm (red) for photonic
crystals operating in the visible part of the spectrum - the repeating regions of
high and low dielectric constants have to be of this dimension. This makes the
fabrication of optical photonic crystals cumbersome and complex.
Photonic Crystals:
Periodic Surprises in Electromagnetism
Steven G. Johnson
MIT
To Begin: A Cartoon in 2d
planewave
E , H ~ e
i (k x et )
k = e / c =
2t

k
scattering
To Begin: A Cartoon in 2d
planewave
E , H ~ e
i (k x et )
k = e / c =
2t

for most , beam(s) propagate
through crystal without scattering
(scattering cancels coherently)
...but for some (~ 2a), no light can propagate: a photonic band gap
a
1887 1987
Photonic Crystals
periodic electromagnetic media
with photonic band gaps: optical insulators
2-D
periodic in
two directions
3-D
periodic in
three di rections
1-D
periodic in
one direction
(need a
more
complex
topology)
Photonic Crystals
periodic electromagnetic media
with photonic band gaps: optical insulators
magical oven mitts for
holding and controlling light
3D Pho to nic Crysta l with De fe c ts
can trap light in cavities and waveguides (wires)
Photonic Crystals
periodic electromagnetic media
But how can we understand such complex systems?
Add up the infinite sum of scattering? Ugh!

3D Pho to nic Crysta l
Hig h ind e x
of re fra c tio n
Low ind e x
o f re fra c tio n
A mystery from the 19th century
e

E
+
+
+
+
+
J = oE
current:
conductivity (measured)
mean free path (distance) of electrons
conductive material
A mystery from the 19th century
e

E
+
J = oE
current:
conductivity (measured)
mean free path (distance) of electrons
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
crystalline conductor (e.g. copper)
10s
of
periods!
A mystery solved
electrons are waves (quantum mechanics)
1
waves in a periodic medium can
propagate without scattering:

Blochs Theorem (1d: Floquets)
2
The foundations do not depend on the specific wave equation.
Time to Analyze the Cartoon
planewave
E , H ~ e
i (k x et )
k = e / c =
2t

for most , beam(s) propagate
through crystal without scattering
(scattering cancels coherently)
...but for some (~ 2a), no light can propagate: a photonic band gap
a
Fun with Math
V E =
1
c
c
ct
H = i
e
c
H
V H = c
1
c
c
ct
E + J = i
e
c
cE
0
dielectric function c(x) = n
2
(x)
First task:
get rid of this mess
V
1
c
V H =
e
c
|
\

|
.
|
2
H
eigen-operator eigen-value
eigen-state
V H = 0
+ constraint
Hermitian Eigenproblems
V
1
c
V H =
e
c
|
\

|
.
|
2
H
eigen-operator eigen-value
eigen-state
V H = 0
+ constraint
Hermitian for real (lossless) c
well-known properties from linear algebra:
e are real (lossless)
eigen-states are orthogonal
eigen-states are complete (give all solutions)
Periodic Hermitian Eigenproblems
[ G. Floquet, Sur les quations diffrentielles linaries coefficients priodiques, Ann. cole Norm. Sup. 12, 4788 (1883). ]
[ F. Bloch, ber die quantenmechanik der electronen in kristallgittern, Z. Physik 52, 555600 (1928). ]
if eigen-operator is periodic, then Bloch-Floquet theorem applies:
H (x ,t) = e
i k x et
( )
H
k
(x )
can choose:
periodic envelope
planewave
Corollary 1: k is conserved, i.e. no scattering of Bloch wave
Corollary 2: given by finite unit cell,
so e are discrete e
n
(k)
H
k
Periodic Hermitian Eigenproblems
Corollary 2: given by finite unit cell,
so e are discrete e
n
(k)
H
k
e
1

e
2

e
3

e
k
band diagram (dispersion relation)
map of
what states
exist &
can interact
?
range of k?
Periodic Hermitian Eigenproblems in 1d
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2

c(x) = c(x+a)
H(x) = e
ikx
H
k
(x)
a
Consider k+2/a: e
i(k+
2t
a
) x
H
k+
2t
a
(x) = e
ikx
e
i
2t
a
x
H
k+
2t
a
(x)




(

(
(
periodic!
satisfies same
equation as H
k
= H
k

k is periodic:
k + 2/a equivalent to k
quasi-phase-matching
band gap
Periodic Hermitian Eigenproblems in 1d
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2

c(x) = c(x+a) a
k is periodic:
k + 2/a equivalent to k
quasi-phase-matching
k
e
0
/a /a
irreducible Brillouin zone
Any 1d Periodic System has a Gap
c
1

k
e
0
[ Lord Rayleigh, On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of
waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Philosophical Magazine 24, 145159 (1887). ]
Start with
a uniform (1d) medium:
e =
k
c
1
Any 1d Periodic System has a Gap
c
1

c(x) = c(x+a) a
k
e
0
/a /a
[ Lord Rayleigh, On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of
waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Philosophical Magazine 24, 145159 (1887). ]
Treat it as
artificially periodic
bands are folded
by 2/a equivalence
e
+
t
a
x
, e

t
a
x
cos
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
| , sin
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
c(x) = c(x+a)
a
c
1

Any 1d Periodic System has a Gap
e
0
/a
[ Lord Rayleigh, On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of
waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Philosophical Magazine 24, 145159 (1887). ]
sin
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
cos
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
x = 0
Treat it as
artificially periodic
c(x) = c(x+a)
a
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2

Any 1d Periodic System has a Gap
e
0
/a
[ Lord Rayleigh, On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of
waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Philosophical Magazine 24, 145159 (1887). ]
Add a small
real periodicity
c
2
= c
1
+ Ac
sin
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
cos
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
x = 0
band gap
Any 1d Periodic System has a Gap
e
0
/a
[ Lord Rayleigh, On the maintenance of vibrations by forces of double frequency, and on the propagation of
waves through a medium endowed with a periodic structure, Philosophical Magazine 24, 145159 (1887). ]
Add a small
real periodicity
c
2
= c
1
+ Ac
sin
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
cos
t
a
x
|
\

|
.
|
c(x) = c(x+a)
a
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2

x = 0
Splitting of degeneracy:
state concentrated in higher index (c
2
)
has lower frequency
Some 2d and 3d systems have gaps
In general, eigen-frequencies satisfy Variational Theorem:

e
1
(k )
2
= min
E
1
VcE
1
=0
V+ ik
( )
E
1
2
}
c E
1
2
}
c
2

e
2
(k )
2
= min
E
2
VcE
2
=0
cE
1
*
E
2
=0 }
" "
kinetic
inverse
potential
bands want to be in high-c
but are forced out by orthogonality
> band gap (maybe)
algebraic interlude completed

I hope you were taking notes*
algebraic interlude
[ *if not, see e.g.: Joannopoulos, Meade, and Winn, Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light ]
2d periodicity, c=12:1
E
H
TM
a
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

e


(
2

c
/
a
)


=

a

/

I
X
M
I X M I
irreducible Brillouin zone
k
QuickTime and a Graphics decompressor are needed to see this picture.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Photonic Band Gap
TM bands
gap for
n > ~1.75:1
QuickTime and a Graphics decompressor are needed to see this picture.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Photonic Band Gap
TM bands
2d periodicity, c=12:1
E
H
TM
I X M I
E
z

+
E
z

(+ 90 rotated version)
gap for
n > ~1.75:1
2d periodicity, c=12:1
E
H
E
H
TM TE
a
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

e


(
2

c
/
a
)


=

a

/

I
X
M
I X M I
irreducible Brillouin zone
k
QuickTime and a Graphics decompressor are needed to see this picture.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Photonic Band Gap
TM bands
TE bands
2d photonic crystal: TE gap, c=12:1
TE bands
TM bands
gap for n > ~1.4:1
E
H
TE
3d photonic crystal: complete gap , c=12:1
U L I X W K
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0
21% gap
L'
L
K'
I
W
U'
X
U''
U
W'
K
z
I: rod layer II: hole layer
I.
II.
[ S. G. Johnson et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 77, 3490 (2000) ]
gap for n > ~4:1
You, too, can compute
photonic eigenmodes!
MIT Photonic-Bands (MPB) package:
http://ab-initio.mit.edu/mpb
on Athena:
add mpb