CHAPTER 4 PART 2

SQL: Data Definition Transparencies

Chapter 6 - Objectives
ata types supported by SQL standard.

urpose of integrity enhancement feature of SQL.

ow to define integrity constraints using SQL.

ow to use the integrity enhancement feature in the CREATE and ALTER TABLE statements.
2

Chapter 6 - Objectives
urpose of views. ow to create and delete views using SQL. ow the DBMS performs operations on views. nder what conditions views are updatable. dvantages and disadvantages of views. ow the ISO transaction model works. ow to use the GRANT and REVOKE statements as
3

ISO SQL Data Types

Integrity Enhancement Feature

onsider five types of integrity constraints:
required data domain constraints entity integrity referential integrity general constraints.

Integrity Enhancement Feature

equired Data
position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL

omain Constraints
(a) CHECK sex CHAR NOT NULL CHECK (sex IN (M, F))

Integrity Enhancement Feature

(b) CREATE DOMAIN

CREATE DOMAIN DomainName [AS] dataType [DEFAULT defaultOption] [CHECK (searchCondition)]

For example:

CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR CHECK (VALUE IN (M, F)); sex SexType NOT NULL
7

Integrity Enhancement Feature

earchCondition can involve a table lookup:
CREATE DOMAIN BranchNo AS CHAR(4) CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo FROM Branch));

omains can be removed using DROP DOMAIN:

DROP DOMAIN DomainName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

IEF - Entity Integrity

rimary key of a table must contain a unique, non-null value for each row. SO standard supports FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER TABLE statements:

PRIMARY KEY(staffNo) PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo)

an only have one PRIMARY KEY clause per table. Can still ensure uniqueness for alternate keys using UNIQUE:

UNIQUE(telNo)

IEF - Referential Integrity

K is column or set of columns that links each row in child table containing foreign FK to row of parent table containing matching PK. eferential integrity means that, if FK contains a value, that value must refer to existing row in parent table. SO standard supports definition of FKs with FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER TABLE:

FOREIGN Branch

KEY(branchNo)

REFERENCES
10

IEF - Referential Integrity

ny INSERT/UPDATE attempting to create FK value in child table without matching CK value in parent is rejected. ction taken attempting to update/delete a CK value in parent table with matching rows in child is dependent on referential action specified using ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses:
CASCADE SET DEFAULT - SET NULL - NO ACTION

11

IEF - Referential Integrity

CASCADE: Delete row from parent and delete
matching rows in child, and so on in cascading manner. SET NULL: Delete row from parent and set FK column(s) in child to NULL. Only valid if FK columns are NOT NULL. SET DEFAULT: Delete row from parent and set each component of FK in child to specified default. Only valid if DEFAULT specified for FK columns. NO ACTION: Reject delete from parent. Default.

12

IEF - Referential Integrity

OREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff ON DELETE SET NULL OREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES Owner ON UPDATE CASCADE

13

IEF - General Constraints

ould use CHECK/UNIQUE in CREATE and ALTER TABLE. imilar to the CHECK clause, also have:
CREATE ASSERTION AssertionName CHECK (searchCondition)

14

IEF - General Constraints

CREATE ASSERTION StaffNotHandlingTooMuch CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo FROM PropertyForRent GROUP BY staffNo HAVING COUNT(*) > 100))

15

Data Definition
QL DDL allows database objects such as schemas, domains, tables, views, and indexes to be created and destroyed. ain SQL DDL statements are:

CREATE SCHEMA DROP SCHEMA CREATE/ALTER DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN CREATE/ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE CREATE VIEW DROP VIEW
any DBMSs also provide:

CREATE INDEX

DROP INDEX

16

Data Definition
elations and other database objects exist in an environment. ach environment contains one or more catalogs, and each catalog consists of set of schemas. chema is named collection of related database objects. bjects in a schema can be tables, views, domains, assertions, collations, translations, and character sets. All have same owner.

17

CREATE SCHEMA
CREATE SCHEMA [Name | AUTHORIZATION CreatorId ] DROP SCHEMA Name [RESTRICT CASCADE ]
ith RESTRICT (default), empty or operation fails. schema must

be

ith CASCADE, operation cascades to drop all objects associated with schema in order defined above. If any of these operations fail, DROP SCHEMA fails.
18

CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE TableName {(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE] [DEFAULT defaultOption] [CHECK searchCondition] [,...]} [PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),] {[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] [,]} {[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns) REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)], [ON UPDATE referentialAction] [ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,]} {[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,] })
19

CREATE TABLE
reates a table with one or more columns of the specified dataType. ith NOT NULL, system rejects any attempt to insert a null in the column. an specify a DEFAULT value for the column. rimary keys should always be specified as NOT NULL. OREIGN KEY clause specifies FK along with the referential action.
20

Example 6.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE DOMAIN OwnerNumber AS VARCHAR(5) CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT ownerNo FROM PrivateOwner)); CREATE DOMAIN StaffNumber AS VARCHAR(5) CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT staffNo FROM Staff)); CREATE DOMAIN PNumber AS VARCHAR(5); CREATE DOMAIN PRooms AS SMALLINT; CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 1 AND 15); CREATE DOMAIN PRent AS DECIMAL(6,2) CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 0 AND 9999.99); 21

Example 6.1 - CREATE TABLE

REATE TABLE PropertyForRent ( propertyNo PNumber NOT NULL, . rooms rent 600, PRooms PRent NOT NULL DEFAULT 4,

NOT NULL, DEFAULT NOT NULL,

ownerNo staffNo

OwnerNumber

StaffNumber Constraint StaffNotHandlingTooMuch .

22

ALTER TABLE
dd a new column to a table. rop a column from a table. dd a new table constraint. rop a table constraint. et a default for a column. rop a default for a column.
23

Example 6.2(a) - ALTER TABLE

Change Staff table by removing default of Assistant for position column and setting default for sex column to female (F). ALTER TABLE Staff
ALTER position DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER sex SET DEFAULT F;

24

Example 6.2(b) - ALTER TABLE

Remove constraint from PropertyForRent that staff are not allowed to handle more than 100 properties at a time. Add new column to Client table.

LTER TABLE PropertyForRent DROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch; LTER TABLE Client ADD prefNoRooms PRooms;
25

DROP TABLE
ROP TABLE TableName [RESTRICT | CASCADE] e.g. DROP TABLE PropertyForRent;

emoves named table and all rows within it. ith RESTRICT, if any other objects depend for their existence on continued existence of this table, SQL does not allow request. ith CASCADE, SQL drops all dependent objects (and objects dependent on these objects).
26

Views
iew
Dynamic result of one or more relational operations operating on base relations to produce another relation.

irtual relation that does not necessarily actually exist in the database but is produced upon request, at time of request.

27

Views
ontents of a view are defined as a query on one or more base relations. ith view resolution, any operations on view are automatically translated into operations on relations from which it is derived. ith view materialization, the view is stored as a temporary table, which is maintained as the underlying base tables are updated.

28

SQL - CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW ViewName [ (newColumnName [,...]) ] AS subselect [WITH [CASCADED | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]
Can assign a name to each column in view. If list of column names is specified, it must have same number of items as number of columns produced by subselect. If omitted, each column takes name of corresponding column in subselect.

29

SQL - CREATE VIEW

ist must be specified if there is any ambiguity in a column name. he subselect is known as the defining query. ITH CHECK OPTION ensures that if a row fails to satisfy WHERE clause of defining query, it is not added to underlying base table. eed SELECT privilege on all tables referenced in subselect and USAGE privilege on any domains used in referenced columns.

30

Example 6.3 - Create Horizontal View

Create view so that manager at branch B003 can only see details for staff who work in his or her office.

CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT * FROM Staff WHERE branchNo = B003;

31

Example 6.4 - Create Vertical View

Create view of staff details at branch B003 excluding salaries.

CREATE VIEW Staff3 AS SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, sex FROM Staff WHERE branchNo = B003;

32

Example 6.5 - Grouped and Joined Views

Create view of staff who manage properties for rent, including branch number they work at, staff number, and number of properties they manage.

CREATE VIEW StaffPropCnt (branchNo, staffNo, cnt) AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*) FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;
33

Example 6.3 - Grouped and Joined Views

34

SQL - DROP VIEW

DROP VIEW CASCADE] ViewName [RESTRICT |

auses definition of view to be deleted from database. or example:

DROP VIEW Manager3Staff;

35

SQL - DROP VIEW

ith CASCADE, all related dependent objects are deleted; i.e. any views defined on view being dropped. ith RESTRICT (default), if any other objects depend for their existence on continued existence of view being dropped, command is rejected.

36

View Resolution
Count number of properties managed by each member at branch B003.
SELECT staffNo, cnt FROM StaffPropCnt WHERE branchNo = B003 ORDER BY staffNo;

37

View Resolution
(a) View column names in SELECT list are translated into their corresponding column names in the defining query:

SELECT s.staffNo COUNT(*) As cnt

As

staffNo,

(b) View names in FROM are replaced with corresponding FROM lists of defining query:

FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p

38

View Resolution
(c) WHERE from user query is combined with
WHERE of defining query using AND:

WHERE s.staffNo branchNo = B003

defining query:

p.staffNo

AND

(d) GROUP BY and HAVING clauses copied from GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo (e) ORDER BY copied from query with view column
name translated into defining query column name

ORDER BY s.staffNo
39

View Resolution
(f) Final merged query is now executed to produce the result:

SELECT s.staffNo AS staffNo, COUNT(*) AS cnt FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo AND branchNo = B003 GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo ORDER BY s.staffNo;

40

Restrictions on Views
SQL imposes several restrictions on creation and use of views. (a) If column in view is based on an aggregate function:

Column may appear only in SELECT and ORDER BY clauses of queries that access view. Column may not be used in WHERE nor be an argument to an aggregate function in any query based on view.

41

Restrictions on Views
or example, following query would fail:
SELECT COUNT(cnt) FROM StaffPropCnt;

imilarly, following query would also fail:

SELECT * FROM StaffPropCnt WHERE cnt > 2;

42

Restrictions on Views
(b) Grouped view may never be joined with a base table or a view. For example, StaffPropCnt view is a grouped view, so any attempt to join this view with another table or view fails.

43

View Updatability
ll updates to base table reflected in all views that encompass base table. imilarly, may expect that if view is updated then base table(s) will reflect change.

44

View Updatability
owever, consider again view StaffPropCnt. f we tried to insert record showing that at branch B003, SG5 manages 2 properties:
INSERT INTO StaffPropCnt VALUES (B003, SG5, 2);

ave to insert 2 records into PropertyForRent showing which properties SG5 manages. However, do not know which properties they are; i.e. do not know primary keys!
45

View Updatability
f change definition of view and replace count with actual property numbers:
CREATE VIEW StaffPropList (branchNo, staffNo, propertyNo) AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, p.propertyNo FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo;

46

View Updatability
ow try to insert the record:
INSERT INTO StaffPropList VALUES (B003, SG5, PG19);

till problem, because in PropertyForRent all columns except postcode/staffNo are not allowed nulls. owever, have no way of giving remaining nonnull columns values.

47

View Updatability
SO specifies that a view is updatable if and only if:

- DISTINCT is not specified. - Every element in SELECT list of defining query is a column name and no column appears more than once. - FROM clause specifies only one table, excluding any views based on a join, union, intersection or difference. - No nested SELECT referencing outer table.
48

Updatable View
For view to be updatable, DBMS must be able to trace any row or column back to its row or column in the source table.

49

WITH CHECK OPTION

ows exist in a view because they satisfy WHERE condition of defining query. f a row changes and no longer satisfies condition, it disappears from the view. ew rows appear within view when insert/update on view cause them to satisfy WHERE condition. ows that enter or leave a view are called migrating rows. ITH CHECK OPTION prohibits a row migrating out 50 of the view.

WITH CHECK OPTION

OCAL/CASCADED apply to view hierarchies. ith LOCAL, any row insert/update on view and any view directly or indirectly defined on this view must not cause row to disappear from view unless row also disappears from derived view/table. ith CASCADED (default), any row insert/ update on this view and on any view directly or indirectly defined on this view must not cause row to disappear from the view.

51

Example 6.6 - WITH CHECK OPTION

CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT * FROM Staff WHERE branchNo = B003 WITH CHECK OPTION;
annot update branch number of row B003 to B002 as this would cause row to migrate from view. lso cannot insert a row into view with a branch number that does not equal B003.
52

Example 6.6 - WITH CHECK OPTION

ow consider the following:

CREATE VIEW LowSalary AS SELECT * FROM Staff WHERE salary > 9000; CREATE VIEW HighSalary AS SELECT * FROM LowSalary WHERE salary > 10000 WITH LOCAL CHECK OPTION; CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT * FROM HighSalary

53

Example 6.6 - WITH CHECK OPTION

UPDATE Manager3Staff SET salary = 9500 WHERE staffNo = SG37;

his update would fail: although update would cause row to disappear from HighSalary, row would not disappear from LowSalary. owever, if update tried to set salary to 8000, update would succeed as row would no longer be part of LowSalary.

54

Example 6.6 - WITH CHECK OPTION

f HighSalary had specified WITH CASCADED CHECK OPTION, setting salary to 9500 or 8000 would be rejected because row would disappear from HighSalary. o prevent anomalies like this, each view should be created using WITH CASCADED CHECK OPTION.

55

Advantages of Views
ata independence urrency mproved security educed complexity onvenience ustomization ata integrity
56

Disadvantages of Views
pdate restriction tructure restriction erformance

57

View Materialization
iew resolution mechanism may be particularly if view is accessed frequently. slow,

iew materialization stores view as temporary table when view is first queried. hereafter, queries based on materialized view can be faster than recomputing view each time. ifficulty is maintaining the currency of view while base tables(s) are being updated.
58

View Maintenance
iew maintenance aims to apply only changes necessary to keep view current. onsider following view: those

CREATE VIEW StaffPropRent(staffNo) AS SELECT DISTINCT staffNo FROM PropertyForRent WHERE branchNo = B003 AND rent > 400;

59

View Materialization
f insert row into PropertyForRent with rent 400 then view would be unchanged. f insert row for property PG24 at branch B003 with staffNo = SG19 and rent = 550, then row would appear in materialized view. f insert row for property PG54 at branch B003 with staffNo = SG37 and rent = 450, then no new row would need to be 60 added to materialized view.

Transactions
QL defines transaction model based on COMMIT and ROLLBACK. ransaction is logical unit of work with one or more SQL statements guaranteed to be atomic with respect to recovery. n SQL transaction automatically begins with a transaction-initiating SQL statement (e.g., SELECT, INSERT). hanges made by transaction are not visible to other concurrently executing transactions until transaction completes.
61

Transactions
ransaction can complete in one of four ways:

- COMMIT ends transaction successfully, making

changes permanent. - ROLLBACK aborts transaction, backing out any changes made by transaction. - For programmatic SQL, successful program termination ends final transaction successfully, even if COMMIT has not been executed. - For programmatic SQL, abnormal program end aborts transaction.

62

Transactions
ew transaction starts with next transactioninitiating statement. QL transactions cannot be nested. ET TRANSACTION configures transaction:

SET TRANSACTION [READ ONLY | READ WRITE] | [ISOLATION LEVEL UNCOMMITTED |

READ
63

Immediate and Deferred Integrity Constraints

o not always want constraints to be checked immediately, but instead at transaction commit. onstraint may be defined as INITIALLY IMMEDIATE or INITIALLY DEFERRED, indicating mode the constraint assumes at start of each transaction. n former case, also possible to specify whether mode can be changed subsequently using qualifier [NOT] DEFERRABLE. efault mode is INITIALLY IMMEDIATE.

64

Immediate Constraints

and

Deferred

Integrity

ET CONSTRAINTS statement used to set mode for specified constraints for current transaction:

SET CONSTRAINTS
{ALL | constraintName [, . . . ]} {DEFERRED IMMEDIATE}

65

Access Control - Authorization Identifiers and Ownership

uthorization identifier is normal SQL identifier used to establish identity of a user. Usually has an associated password. sed to determine which objects user may reference and what operations may be performed on those objects. ach object created in SQL has an owner, as defined in AUTHORIZATION clause of schema to which object belongs. wner is only person who may know about it.
66

Privileges
ctions user permitted to carry out on given base table or view: ELECT NSERT PDATE ELETE Retrieve data from a table. Insert new rows into a table. Modify rows of data in a table. Delete rows of data from a table. of named
67

EFERENCES Reference columns table in integrity constraints.

Privileges
an restrict INSERT/UPDATE/REFERENCES to named columns. wner of table must grant other users the necessary privileges using GRANT statement. o create view, user must have SELECT privilege on all tables that make up view and REFERENCES privilege on the named columns.

68

GRANT
GRANT {PrivilegeList | ALL PRIVILEGES} ON ObjectName TO {AuthorizationIdList | PUBLIC} [WITH GRANT OPTION]

rivilegeList consists of one or more of above privileges separated by commas. LL PRIVILEGES grants all privileges to a user.

69

GRANT
UBLIC allows access to be granted to all present and future authorized users. bjectName can be a base table, view, domain, character set, collation or translation. ITH GRANT passed on. OPTION allows privileges to be

70

Example 6.7/8 - GRANT

Give Manager full privileges to Staff table.

GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON Staff TO Manager WITH GRANT OPTION;

Give users Personnel and Director SELECT and UPDATE on column salary of Staff.

GRANT SELECT, UPDATE (salary) ON Staff TO Personnel, Director;

71

Example 6.9 - GRANT Specific Privileges to PUBLIC

Give all users SELECT on Branch table.

GRANT SELECT ON Branch TO PUBLIC;

72

REVOKE
EVOKE takes away privileges granted with GRANT. REVOKE [GRANT OPTION FOR] {PrivilegeList | ALL PRIVILEGES} ON ObjectName FROM {AuthorizationIdList | PUBLIC} [RESTRICT | CASCADE] LL PRIVILEGES granted to a refers to all privileges user by user revoking73

REVOKE
RANT OPTION FOR allows privileges passed on via WITH GRANT OPTION of GRANT to be revoked separately from the privileges themselves. EVOKE fails if it results in an abandoned object, such as a view, unless the CASCADE keyword has been specified. rivileges granted to this user by other users are not affected.

74

REVOKE

75

Example 6.10/11 - REVOKE Specific Privileges

Revoke privilege SELECT on Branch table from all users.

REVOKE SELECT ON Branch FROM PUBLIC;

Revoke all privileges given to Director on Staff table.

REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES ON Staff FROM Director;

76