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Module 6
Where are we?
2
Cruise and endurance
Cruise
Introduction
Definition of specific air range (SAR)
Calculation of SAR
Typical SAR chart
Cruise range calculation
Types of cruise
Temperature effects
Altitude effects
Wind effects
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise - Introduction
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Definition of Specific Air Range (SAR)
SAR is defined as the air distance traveled per unit of mass of
fuel during steady state and level flight cruise conditions
SAR units
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Definition of SAR (Cont’d)
• Vg = V + Vwind
• SR = SAR * (V + Vwind ) / V
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Calculation of SAR
Exact method :
• Specific cruise conditions are assumed : weight,
altitude, Mach number, deviation from ISA , engine bleed
extraction and number of engines operating (neng)
• V = ao θ 0.5
• CL= W/(qS)
• SAR = V / Wf
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Calculation of SAR (Cont’d)
Theoretical method is useful to understand the parameters that
affect SAR
• SAR = V / Wf
• SAR = V / (Treq SFC)
• Knowing that Treq = W / (L/D) :
• SAR = (V/SFC) (L/D) (1/W)
• Knowing that V = ao θ 0.5 M,
• SAR = (ao θ 0.5 / SFC) (M L/D) (1/W)
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Calculation of SAR (Cont’d)
Tangent lines on CL – CD graph defines maximum M L/D
CL for maximum M L/D reduces as M increases
Maximum M L/D occurs when compressibility effects are
becoming important
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Typical SAR chart
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation
Cruise range is defined as the cruise air distance traveled while burning a
given quantity of fuel (given fuel burn)
For flight at constant altitude, cruise range can easily be determined from
SAR data :
• R = SARavg * (W1-W2)
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
• Note : if SAR does not vary linearly with weight, it is
necessary to analyze smaller cruise segments and to add
them up in order to obtain the cruise range
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
Case 1 : flight at constant altitude
SAR equation : SAR = (1/ SFC) (V L/D) (1/W)
Knowing that V = (2 W / (ρ S CL))0.5 , we can rewrite SAR as
SAR = (1/SFC) (2 / (ρ S))0.5 (CL0.5/CD) (1/W0.5)
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
Case 2 : flight at constant speed
SAR equation : SAR = (1/ SFC) (V L/D) (1/W)
Integration of the SAR equation with respect to weight and conversion to
nam gives:
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
Constant speed and constant CL imply that the aircraft must climb
as its weight reduces :
• CL = W / (1481.3 δ M2 S)
• W / δ must be constant
• As weight reduces due to fuel burn, the aircraft must climb
• Resulting climb angle is small (order of 0.02o) and the basic
assumption that T = D is still essentially valid
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
Range for the two cases can be compared with the following
example:
- S = 450 ft2
- W1 = 45,000 lb and W2 = 42,000 lb
- FL370 / ISA / Mach 0.8
- L / D = 15
- SFC = 0.6 (lb/hr) / lb fuel
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Cruise range calculation (Cont’d)
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Types of cruise
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Types of cruise (Cont’d)
During flight at constant altitude, range can be maximized (or fuel burn
minimized for a given range) by flying at the Mach number for maximum
SAR – referred to as Maximum Range Cruise (MRC) Mach number
• MRC is not used very much operationally as it normally results in
unacceptably low cruise speeds (long flight time)
• Flight at MRC implies that M and thrust are reduced as weight
reduces
• MRC speed schedule can be derived from SAR chart
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Types of cruise (Cont’d)
Flight at Long Range Cruise (LRC) cruise speed or Mach number provides
a good compromise between fuel efficiency and flight time
LRC speed is the speed that provides 99 % of max. SAR
• Implies that Mach and thrust are reduced as weight reduces
• LRC can be derived from SAR chart
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Types of cruise (Cont’d)
Flight at constant Mach number
• Commonly used operationally, specially on short range
missions where flight at varying speed schedule (e.g. LRC)
would only result in a small benefit in operating costs
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Types of cruise (Cont’d)
Effect of different types of cruise conditions on cruise range
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Temperature effects
Unless maximum cruise speed is used, temperature has a negligible effect
on SAR and range
• SAR = V / Wf
• In order to maintain a constant thrust level at a higher temperature,
fuel flow increases
• The fuel flow increase is essentially compensated by the higher
true airspeed V at the higher temperature
• Effect on SAR is typically less than 0.1 % for every degree of
deviation from ISA conditions
Significant impact when max. cruise speed is limited by MCR
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Cruise and endurance
Cruise – Altitude effects
With a tailwind :
• SR is greater than SAR
• Mach number for MRC and LRC are lower than in zero wind
conditions
With a headwind :
• SR is lower than SAR
• Mach number for MRC and LRC are higher than in zero wind
conditions
Range (still air distance) is corrected similarly in order to obtain
ground distance
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Cruise and endurance
Endurance
Introduction
Conditions for best endurance
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Cruise and endurance
Endurance - Introduction
Endurance is defined as the length of time that an aircraft can
remain airborne
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Cruise and endurance
Endurance – Conditions for best endurance
For practical considerations, level flight is assumed
Basic SFC definition leads to :
dW = - SFC T dt
dt/dW = -1 / (SFC T)
Knowing that T = D = W D/L in level flight :
dt = - (1/SFC) L/D 1/W dW
Integrating between beginning and end of flight segment :
E = (1/SFC) L/D ln (W1/W2)
Where E = Endurance (hours)
W1 = weight at beginning of flight segment (lb)
W2 = weight at end of flight segment (lb)
For the case where SFC is constant with varying thrust levels,
maximum endurance is obtained during flight at maximum L/D or
VMD
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Cruise and endurance
Endurance – Conditions for best endurance (Cont’d)
Typical data shows that minimum fuel flow occurs at a specific
pressure altitude
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Cruise and endurance
Endurance – Conditions for best endurance (Cont’d)
In practice, the speed for best endurance or holding is normally
defined by VMD
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Cruise and endurance