Aircraft Performance

Module 12
Where are we?

1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere

2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Agenda – Module 12
 Introduction

 Marketing requirements

 High speed performance

• Engine performance
• Aerodynamics and wing loading
• Weight and CG

 Low speed performance

• Engine performance
• Aerodynamics and wing loading
• Braking
• Ground lift dumpers

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Introduction

 Aircraft design is strongly influenced by the performance objectives

• High speed requirements

• Low speed requirements

 High speed and low speed performance requirements are affected by

many parameters and are not necessarily compatible

• As part of the aircraft design process, trade-off studies must be carried

out to find an acceptable compromise between high speed and low
speed requirements

 Some important factors affecting high speed and low speed

performance are reviewed in the following slides

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Marketing requirements

 Marketing Requirements and Objectives (MR&O) form the basis for

aircraft design

 Typical MR&O that are performance-related:

• Initial cruise altitude – T.O. at MTOW

• Maximum cruise speed High speed requirements
• Maximum range with design payload

• Take-off field length at MTOW

• Landing field length at MLW Low speed requirements
• V REF at MLW

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 High speed – Engine performance
 MCL and MCR ratings must be selected so as to meet mission
requirements

• MCL rating must allow the aircraft to reach the target initial cruise
altitude (ideally up to at least ISA+10)
• MCR rating must allow the aircraft to reach the target maximum cruise
speed (ideally up to at least ISA+10)

 SFC must be as low as possible

• High SFC will lead to an increase of the fuel quantity required , and
therefore MTOW, for the mission

Highly undesirable

 Good engine performance is the basis for good aircraft performance

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 High speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading
 High speed performance can be optimized with proper aerodynamic
design

 For high cruise speeds:

• Swept wing
• High aspect ratio
• Good high speed airfoil section (high critical Mach number)
• Wing must not be over-sized (need a relatively high wing loading W/S -
reduced skin friction)

 For best fuel mileage:

• High value of ML/D at the design cruise condition

 For a suitable margin to buffet onset:

• Good high speed airfoil section (high critical Mach number)
• Wing loading W/S must not be too high (operation at higher CL reduces
margin to buffet onset)
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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 High speed – Weight and CG
 A low OWE is necessary in order to minimize fuel burn and to
maximize range
• Ex. : For a regional jet aircraft, an OWE increase of 1000 lb will
- Increase fuel burn by 1 % for a given mission
- Reduce maximum range by about 60 nm

 Considerations for low OWE

• Composite materials, fly-by-wire and careful selection of aircraft interior

 MTOW must be selected such that target range can be achieved with
the design payload condition
• The MTOW/OWE ratio will increase in proportion with the target range
• An increase in MTOW may require an increase in OWE (snowball effect)

 Flight at aft CG will reduce trim drag and maximize range

• Tail fuel tank may be used to obtain control on CG position during flight

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Engine performance

 Take-off rating must provide acceptable

• take-off field lengths

• take-off WAT limits

 Adverse effects of high idle thrusts

• High taxi speeds (brake heating)

• Longer accelerate-stop and landing distances
• Lower descent angle

 Adverse effect of low idle thrusts

• Higher spool-up time to maximum reverse or GA rating

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Engine performance (Cont’d)
 For optimum performance on wet and contaminated runways

Reverse thrust levels must be

high (but controllable)

Time delays for actuation of

the thrust reverser system
must be small

 Impact of engine bleed on thrust must be acceptable

• Significant thrust reduction may result when using anti-ice

 Derates and / or reduced thrust procedure are necessary in order to

preserve engine life

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading
 Aerodynamic requirements for optimum low speed performance

• Low operating speeds

• High L/D in the take-off configuration
• Low L/D in the landing configuration

 Low operating speeds

• The key to short take-off and landing distances

TOFL is proportional to V2 2
LFL is proportional to VREF 2

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 How can we design the aircraft to obtain low operating speeds ?

• Need high CLMAX and low wing loading W/S

- Efficient flaps and slats

- Good stall characteristics
- Stall speed not limited by elevator power

• V2 and VREF should be based on minimum stall speed ratio as defined in

FAR / JAR 25

- Operating speeds are limited by VSR rather than by VMCA, VMCG , VMU or by
aircraft handling considerations

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 How can we design the aircraft to obtain low operating speeds ?

• VMC considerations must not limit take-off and landing speeds

- Limitation by VMC considerations may be acceptable at light weights

- Directional and lateral flight controls must have sufficient power

VMCA
Frudder

DWM

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 How can we design the aircraft to obtain low operating speeds ?

• VMU considerations must not limit take-off speeds

- Adequate tail clearance is required, e.g. tail contact at a pitch attitude of not
less than 15 degrees with landing gear fully extended

- Need sufficient elevator power to ensure that high pitch attitudes can be
achieved at low speeds

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 Other considerations

• Aircraft handling must be acceptable at minimum take-off and landing

speeds

- Speed stability during landing approach (i.e. need high CDO ) Aircraft must
be controllable during take-off and landing in crosswinds of 20-30 knots

• High values of VREF may result in operational restrictions

- Approach categories are defined based on VREF at MLW

- For approach category C , VREF must be less than 141 KCAS at MLW
- If VREF is not less than 141 KCAS at MLW, the aircraft will not be allowed to
operate at some airports

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 Lift-to-drag ratio

• L/D should be as high as possible in the take-off configuration

- Results in higher climb gradients and higher WAT limits

- Lower certificated noise level
- For aircraft equipped with slats, Improved climb procedure may be used to
improve L/D at the expense of longer take-off distances
- Multiple take-off slat / flap settings provide operational flexibility

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Aerodynamics and wing loading (Cont’d)
 Lift-to-drag ratio

• L/D should be as high as possible in the take-off configuration

- Results in higher climb gradients and higher WAT limits

- Lower certificated noise level
- For aircraft equipped with slats, Improved climb procedure may be used to
improve L/D at the expense of longer take-off distances
- Multiple take-off slat / flap settings provide operational flexibility

• L/D in the landing configuration

- High CLMAX required for landing generally results in relatively low L/D
- Low L/D results in better speed stability
- High L/D results in lower certificated noise levels
- High L/D results in better go-around and landing climb performance
- Multiple landing configurations provide operational flexibility

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Braking
 Braking performance plays a major role in
field performance

• Significant impact on landing distance

• Somewhat smaller impact on BFL as a result of

the balancing process

 Brakes are designed to meet specific requirements

• Landing and RTO brake energy levels

• Brake torque required for maximum braking force on a dry runway
• Turnaround time
- function of brake temperatures following a stop and brake cooling
characteristics
- Cooling fans are sometimes included in brake systems
• Carbon brakes versus steel brakes

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Braking (Cont’d)
 Some important characteristics of
the braking system

• Time to reach optimum braking

pressure
• Anti-skid efficiency (dry or wet
runways) μ

 Anti-skid parameters are tuned

during flight tests in order to
optimize braking performance
Time - sec

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Low speed – Ground lift dumpers
 Ground lift dumpers

• Ground lift dumpers provide an increase in weight on wheels

- Significant increase in braking force

- Significant increase in drag

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
 Conclusion

 I hope that you have liked this course

 Your comments / suggestions are welcome

• Please send comments / suggestions in an email

 Thank you for your attention!

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Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design