MEPS01 (Physiology)

Action potential

Learning objective
Describe briefly the division of nervous system Describe the parts of neurons in terms of structure and functions Describe the type of channel proteins involved in transmission of signals in the cell membrane based on electrical and chemical gradient Brief explanation on the mechanism of both resting and action potential

The Nervous System (recall)

Has two distinct parts: 1. The central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) 2. The peripheral nervous system (the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord)

The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell (neuron)
Neurons come in several forms, which can be classified by their structure, their function, or both

Histology of the nervous system

A "nerve" is a visible structure, a bundle of axonal processes from many different neurons, wrapped in a connective tissue sheath. A "neuron" is a cell, one part of which is included in a nerve. Analogy: A telephone cable carries messages back and forth along wires

Histology of the nervous system

Basic functional unit of the nervous system is neuron formed of cell body / soma and cell processes.

Cell body usually multipolar surrounded by cell membrane and contains nucleus with many cytoplasmic organelles.
Cell processes have two types: 1. Dendrites short , branched which receive ongoing impulses to the cell body. 2. Axon / nerve fiber a long process of the cell carries impulses from the cell body.

Histology of the nervous system

Nerve formed of large number of nerve fibers and maybe of: 1. Myelinated axon covered with myelin sheath 2. Non-myelinated myelin sheath absent

Impulses transmitted from one nerve to another cell at synapses

Myelinated Nerve Fibers

A very elaborate multi-layered covering of plasma membrane, a thick and efficient barrier to charge leakage, called the myelin sheath made by: Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system Oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system

Oligodendrocytes

Function of myelination
In axons of equal size the rate of conduction of a signal is much stable when there's a myelin sheath. Myelination prevents leakage of membrane charge into the surrounding intercellular space. It also lessens the strain on the neuron's sodium potassium pump by restricting ion release to specific sites

Non-myelinated nerve fibers

Not all axons of peripheral nerves are myelinated. But that doesn't mean they're uncovered; neurons are never left naked.

Other support cells (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord also contain support cells called glial cells of many types:

1. Astrocytes: help provide nutrients to nerve cells and control the chemical composition of fluids around nerve cells, enabling them to thrive. 2. Oligodendrocytes: make myelin, a fatty substance that insulates nerve axons and speeds the conduction of impulses along nerve fibers. 3. Microglia: help protect the brain against infection and help remove debris from dead cells.

Other support cells (CNS)

Transmission of impulses
Nerves transmit impulses electrically in one direction from the impulse - sending axon of one nerve cell to the impulse-receiving dendrites of the next nerve cell.

Transmission of impulses
At synapse, the axon secretes neurotransmitter that trigger the receptors on the next nerve cell's dendrites to produce a new electrical current. Different types of nerves use different neurotransmitters to convey impulses across the synapses.

Transmission of impulses
A synapse is a junction between two neurones across which electrical signals pass

presynaptic cell

synaptic cleft

postsynaptic cell

Transmission of impulses
When a nerve impulse arrives at the end of one neurone it triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles.

synaptic vesicle

neurotransmitter molecules eg: acetylcholine

Transmission of impulses
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptors on the next neurone, triggering another impulse.

synaptic cleft

nerve impulse receptor

Transmission of impulses
Neurons send messages electrochemically. Chemicals cause an electrical signal.

Chemicals in the body are "electrically-charged" - when they have an electrical charge, they are called ions.

Transmission of impulses
Important ions in the nervous system are sodium, Na+ and potassium, K+ (both have 1 positive charge, +), calcium, Ca2+ (has 2 positive charges, ++) and chloride, Cl- (has a negative charge, -) There are also some negatively charged protein molecules.
** Nerve cells are surrounded by a semipermeable membrane that allows some ions to pass through and blocks the passage of other ions.

Resting Membrane Potential

When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is "at rest." At rest, the inside of the neuron is -ve relative to the outside. Although the concentrations of the different ions attempt to balance out on both sides of the membrane, they cannot because the cell membrane allows only some ions to pass through channels (ion channels).

Resting Membrane Potential

At rest, K+ ions can cross through the membrane easily but not for Cl- ions and Na+ ions. Presence of a pump that uses energy to move 3 Na+ ions out of the neuron for every 2 K+ ions it puts in. When all these forces balance out, and the difference in the voltage between the inside and outside of the neuron is measured as the resting potential.

The K+ channel and Na+/K+ pump

Resting Membrane Potential

The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV (mV=millivolt) - the inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside. At rest, there are relatively more Na+ ions outside the neuron and more K+ ions inside that neuron.

Action Potential

An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body.
It is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current.

Action Potential
A stimulus causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV

When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is the threshold
If the neuron does not reach this critical threshold level, then no action potential will fire

Action Potential
When the threshold level is reached, an action potential of a fixed sized will always fire...for any given neuron, the size of the action potential is always the same. There are no big or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action potentials are the same size.

The neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired - this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle.

Action Potential

What happens when a nerve is stimulated?

Getting excited!
Astheneuronesmembraneatrestismore-ve inside than outside, it is said to be polarised Neurones are excitable cells If a stimuli above a threshold level is applied to the membrane, it causes a massive change in the potential difference The cells are excited when their membranes become depolarised; making the inside of the axon +ve & the outside -ve

Getting excited!
The potential difference becomes +40mV; lasting about 3ms, before returning to the resting state (why it is important to return the membrane to the resting state a.s.a.p?) This return to a resting potential of -70mV; repolarisation The large change in the voltage across the membrane; action potential

What causes an Action Potential?

When the cell membranes are stimulated, there is a change in the permeability of the membrane to Na+ The membrane becomes more permeable to Na+ and K+ Due to the opening & closing of voltage-dependent Na+ & K+ channels (at rest, these channels are blocked by gates)

What causes an Action Potential?

Changes in the voltage across the membrane cause the gates to open Na+ diffuse into the cell down a concentration gradient The entry of Na+ disturbs the resting potential and causes the inside of the cell to become more +ve relative to the outside.

Three stages in the generation of an action potential 1)Depolarisation

When a neurone is stimulated The change in the potential difference across the membrane causes a change in the shape of the Na+ gate, opening it

As the Na+ flow in, depo- increases & triggering more gates to open until potential diff. threshold is reached
Causing build-up of +ve charges inside; this reverses the polarity of the membrane The potential diff. across the membrane reaches +40mV

1) Depolarisation

1. Depolarisation

The threshold
In order for the neuron to generate an action potential the membrane potential must reach the threshold of excitation.

55mV represents the threshold potential Beyond this we get a full action potential The membrane potential rises to +35mV this is the peak of the action potential The cells are almost at the equilibrium for Na+ ions

+35

mV

More Na+ channels open Na+ floods into neurone Na+ voltagegated channels open

-55 -70

Threshold

Time
Resting potential Action potential

2)Repolarisation
After about 0.5ms, the V-D Na+ channels close & permeability of the membrane to Na+ returns to normal V-D K+ channels open due to depolarisation of the membrane; K+ move out of the axon down the electrochemical gradient

As K+ flow out of the cell, the inside of the cell once again becomes more ve than outside

2)Repolarisation

3) Hyperpolarisation
The membrane is now highly permeable to K+ & more ions move out than occurs at resting potential, making the potential diff. more ve than the normal resting potential The resting potential is re-established by closing of the VD K+ channels & K+ diffusion into the axon

3) Hyperpolarisation

3) Hyperpolarisation

Mechanism of Action Potential

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

A neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a contact between a nerve and a muscle - it is like a synapse, the action potential stops and the signal is carried by a chemical. There is a delay at synapses- chemical transmission is slower than electrical transmission

Synapses & Neuromuscular Junctions

Chemical transmitters are made and stored in the presynaptic terminal Calcium is required for transmitter release Transmitter diffuses across the synaptic gap and binds to a receptor When transmitter binds to a receptor, it produces an EPSP(excitatory postsynaptic potential) or an IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential) If there are enough EPSPs, an action potential will be produced in the postsynaptic membrane

Synapses & Neuromuscular Junctions

Synapses & Neuromuscular Junctions

The transmitter is broken down and/or recycled

In the CNS, nerves make synapses with thousands of other nerves

There are dozens of transmitters in the nervous system

Synapses are believed to be the sites of Learning and Memory

Many toxins and diseases affect neuromuscular junction & synaptic transmission

Nervous system disorder

The nervous system is an extraordinarily complex communication system that can send and receive voluminous amounts of information simultaneously. However, the system is vulnerable to diseases and injuries.

Nervous system disorder

Degeneration of nerve cells can cause Alzheimer's, Huntington's, or Parkinson's disease.

Inflammation of Oligodendrocytes may cause multiple sclerosis.

Infection of bacteria or viruses on the brain or spinal cord can causing encephalitis or meningitis. A blockage in the blood supply to the brain can cause a stroke.

Injuries or tumors can cause structural damage to the brain or spinal cord.

Nervous system disorder