Training and Learning

Concepts of learning
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills. It is a process in which an individuals behaviour is changed through experience. For our purposes, that experience is training and development. Learning occurs, when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern gratifying or useful, and incorporates it into the repertoire of behaviours. When a behaviour has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill.

Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skill through study, experience or teaching. It is a process that depends on experience and leads to long term changes in behavior potential. Learning occurs, when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern of gratifying or useful, and incorporates it into the behaviors When a behavior has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill.

What is not a learning ?

This can be done through direct experience , by doing/participating , or indirectly , through observation. Learning does not apply to temporary changes in behaviour such as those stemming from fatigue, drugs, or illness. It does not refer to changes resulting from maturation. The changes produced by learning are not always positive in nature.

Learning
Learning is relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

Type of Learning Outcome

Verbal Information

Description of Capability
State, tell or describe previously stored information.

Intellectual Skills

Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate novel products.
Execute a physical action with precision and timing. Choose a personal course of action. Manage ones own thinking and learning processes.

Motor Skills Attitudes Cognitive Strategies

Training
Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees learning of job related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance. The goal training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill and behaviors emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day-to-day activities. Training is opportunity for learning. What is learned depends on many factors such as :

1.) the design.

2.) implementation of training. 3.) the motivation to learn. 4.) learning style of the trainees.

5.) the learning climate of the organization.

Training, development and education are all a subset of Learning. Training is structured presentation with a specific purpose and may or may not be classroom based.

Conditions for Effective Learning

Authentic and open system at the training institution. Non-threatening Climate Challenging in learning tasks Collaborative arrangements for mutual support of learning. Mechanisms for supportive and quick feedback. Opportunities to practise skills learned. Opportunities to apply learning.

Conditions for Effective Learningtrainers perspectives

Opportunities for and encouragement of selflearning. Opportunities and support for experimentation. Emphasis on learning through discovery. Indirect and liberating influence of the trainer through minimum guidance. Trainers human values and faith in humanity. Trainers high expectations from learners and openness to examine his own needs. Trainers competence

Major Conditions for learning to be effective- Leaners Perspectives'

The learner should be motivated to learn. Standard of performance should be set for him. The learner should have guidance (direction + feedback). The learner must get satisfaction from learning. Learning is an active and not a passive process. Appropriate techniques should be used. Learning methods should be varied. Time must be allowed to absorb the learning. The learner must receive reinforcement or correct behavior. The need to recognize that there are different levels of learning and that these need different methods and take different times.

What should be learned?

Verbal Information : Includes names or labels, facts and bodies of knowledge. Intellectual Skills : Includes concepts and rules. To solve problems, serve customers and create product. Motor Skills: Include coordination of physical movements. Attitudes : Beliefs, feeling, action/behaviour choose a personal course of action. Cognitive Strategies : Manage ones own thinking and learning process.

Training Design Characteristics

Objectives Plan of instruction Principles of learning

Theories and principles of learning

Learning Outcomes Cognitive Skill Affective

Trainee Characteristics Readiness to learn Motivation to learn

Transfer Outcomes Generalization Adaptability Maintenance/ Enhancement

Work Characteristics Opportunity Climate Support

A model of characteristics affecting learning and transfer outcome Baldwin,T.T

Stages Of Learning
According To ACT (Adaptive Character of Thought) Theory, learning takes place into three stages that are known as: Declarative knowledge (knowledge, facts, information
etc.)- cognitive resources/attention.

Knowledge Compilation, and

Procedural knowledge or proceduralization.

Learning Styles
According to David Kolb, there are four learning modes:

1. Concrete Experience (Learning by experience)

2. Abstract Conceptualization (learning by thinking) 1. Reflective Observation (learning by reflecting) 2. Active Experimentation (learning by doing)

Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning Theory Reinforcement Theory Social Learning Theory Information processing Theory Adult Learning Theory

-Read Motivation& Learning theories as well.

Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has been acquired through experience. In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused them to salivate. Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food. In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex/response.

Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned Stimulus (food)
The food is an unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and without the dog having to learn how to salivate.

Conditioned Stimulus (bell)

When Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned stimulus because the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food.

Unconditioned Reflex (salivation)

An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without you having to think about it, such as your mouth salivating when you eat.

Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell)

The dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when previously (without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.

Reinforcement /operant conditioning Theory

Famous psychologist , B.F. Skinner
Stimulus
Events or cues in the environment attract our attention

Behaviour
A response or set of response

Consequence
Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement No consequence Punishment

Ratio Schedules : fixed ratio ,continuous, variable- ratio Interval Schedules: Fixed interval /variable interval

Reinforcement Theory
This theory was developed by the behaviourist school of psychology by B.F. Skinner. Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors.

In behavioral terms "positive" means something is added to the situation, "negative" means something is taken away. "Reinforcement" means that the behavior is more likely to be repeated after it is applied, "punishment" means the behavior is less likely to be repeated afterwards.
Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can include verbal reinforcement such as 'That's great' or 'You're certainly on the right track' through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organisation.

Reinforcement Theory
Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement whenever target behavior has taken place a given no. of times. Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement after each occurrence of target behavior. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after several occurrences of target behavior; no. of occurrences before reinforcement may differ each time. Fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement at a given time interval after performance of target behavior. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement occurring periodically after performance of target behavior; time intervals may differ each time.

Social Learning Theory

The theory was introduced by Albert Bandura, Psychologist. Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Learning is also influenced by a persons self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a persons judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills. Self-efficacy can be increased using several methods: Verbal persuasion: means offering words of encouragement to convince others they can learn. Logical verification: involves perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered. Modeling: involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees. Past Accomplishments: refers to allowing employees to build a history of successful accomplishments.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura , Psychologist Observation :( the role model or set an examples ) Techniques of observation learning : attention ,retention , reproduction and reinforcement. Self-efficacy: Self-management:

Social Learning Theory

Four Processes of Social Learning Theory Attention: Model Stimuli Trainee Characteristics Retention: Coding Organization Rehearsal

Motor Reproduction: Physical Capability Accuracy Feedback

Motivational Processes: Reinforcement

Match Modeled

Performance

Social Learning Theory

Example of Social Learning Theory

Students learn how to act in school through interaction with the teacher and other students. They learn to work quietly and raise their hands to get the teachers attention. There are expectations of behavior and negative consequences for not acting appropriately.

Information Processing Theory

Stimulus or message

Receptors Eyes Ears Nose Skin

Sensory Register

Shortterm Memory

Longterm Memory

Environment Feedback Reinforcement Response Generator

Effectors

Adult Learning Theory

Educational psychologist ,Malcolm Knowles 1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning. 2. Adults have a need to be self-directed 3. Adults bring more work- related experiences into learning situation. 4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem centered approach to learning. 5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Model based on several assumptions:1.Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. 2.Adults have a need to be self-directed. 3.Adults bring more work- related experiences into the learning situation. 4.Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning. 5.Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Adult Learning Theory (By Malcolm Knowles)

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training :Design Issue Implications

Self- Concept Experience

Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications

Time Perspective

Immediate application of content

Orientation to learning Problem-centered instead of subject-centered

Factor Personality Motivation Roles Openness to change attitudes Barriers to change Concept

Children Dependent Extrinsic students/child keen Few

Adults Independent Intrinsic parent ,volunteer ,spouse Ingrained habits and Negative SelfLimited opportunities Time Inappropriate Teaching Methods

Experience

Limited

Vast

Orientation to learning

subjected centered

problem-centered

Pedagogy and Andragogy

Pedagogy is defined as the art and science of teaching children. Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults to learn. Andragogy As an individual matures his need and capacity to be self directing, to utilize his experiences in learning around life problems, increases steadily from infancy to pre-adolescence and then increasingly rapidly during adolescence. Knowledge's based Andragogy upon certain crucial assumptions concerning the differences between children and adults as learners.

Assumptions
Pedagogy
Self Concept

Design Elements
Pedagogy
Climate

Andragogy
Self Directing

Andragogy
Mutual respect Collaborative Informal Mutual Mutual SelfDiagnosis Mutual Negotiations
Sequenced in terms of readiness Problem Units

Dependency

Authority Oriented

Experience

of little worth

Learners are rich resource

Planning
Diagnosis of needs Formulation of Object. Design

By teacher By teacher

Readiness

Biological Developmental development task of social social pressure roles Postponed application Subject Centered

By Teacher

Time Perspective

Immediacy of application
Problem Centered

Orientation to learning

Activities

Logic of the subject matter Content Units Transmitting techniques

Experimental techniques

Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

Difference 1: Self concept: The child sees himself as a dependent personality; the adult wants to be treated as a self-directing person and with respect.

Implications: (1) A climate of adultness is a necessity in all adult program. (2) Engage the adult in diagnosing his own needs for learning. (3) Involve the adults in the planning of their own learning. (4) Allow the adults to carry out their own learning. (5) Evaluation should be a re self-diagnosis.

Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

Difference 2 Experience: By virtue of a longer life, adults have had more experiences, thus are richer resources for learning. Implication: Allow the adult to express their experiences. Action-learning and participative learning techniques are good to use.

Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

Difference 3 Time Perspective: A Youths learning orientation is one of postponed application, therefore learning is

subject centered. An adults time perspective concerning

learning is one of immediate application resulting in a

problem centered orientation.

Principles of learning
Association : Contiguity ,law of effect and active practice. Spaced versus massed practice Whole versus part practice Sequence of Practice Feedback & coaching More Practice/over-learning

What is transfer of learning?

Transfer of learning is
Students/employees independently apply knowledge and skills to similar but new information.

Influence of previous experience on:

Learning a new skill Performing a skill in a new context

Types of Transfer
Positive transfer
A situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning.

Negative transfer
A situation in which prior learning interferes with subsequent learning.

Zero transfer
A situation in which prior learning has no effect on new learning.

Others Types of Transfer

Specific transfer
Situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning because of specific similarities between two tasks.

General transfer
Situation in which prior learning aids subsequent learning due to the use of similar cognitive strategies.

Types of Transfer
Near transfer
Knowledge domains are highly similar, the settings in which the original learning and transfer tasks occur are basically the same, and the elapsed time between the two tasks is relatively short.

Far transfer
Knowledge domains and settings are judged to be dissimilar and the time between the original learning and transfer tasks is relatively long.

Types of Transfer
Low-road transfer
Situation in which a previously learned skill or idea is almost automatically retrieved from memory and applied to a highly similar current task.

High-road transfer
Situation involving the conscious, controlled, somewhat effortful formulation of an abstraction that allows a connection to be made between two tasks.