Operationalization - I Session II

A researcher identifies a research problem or a researchable topic with a certain procedure, specifies objectives, formulate hypotheses with respect to the objectives and prepares a research design. Research Design is a Plan, Structure and Strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.

The researcher takes all the above points into account while preparing a Research Design. Therefore .. Research Design can differ with respect to the types of research and various descriptors. However it encompasses the following steps: Theory --Hypotheses--Test to validate the theory or recast the theory--conclusion, policy implication and recommendation.

An example of the out line of a Research Design with reference to social science.
A brief background of the study with reference to the existing literature ( Critical analysis of similar studies and identification of research questions.) Problem statement. Objectives of the study (Often referred to as TOR) Hypotheses formulation with reference to the objectives.

.Contd
Methodology: Data requirement to test the hypotheses, Sources of the data and data collection Requirement of a sample in case of a survey, Tools to use for data analysis and their rationale Findings and Analysis Conclusion, Policy implication and recommendation & Limitation of the study.

Methodology
Methodology of a study incorporates Data requirement & Sources Tools for collection of data Requirement of a sample in case of a survey Specification of StatisticalTechniques to use for data analysis and their rationale.

Collection of data and sources

Data could be collected through the secondary or primary source depending on the objectives of the study and hypotheses to test. 1.Secondary data could be collected from published sources or data banks. Some of the sources are: CSO, ASI,NSS CMIE, Government Departments, RBI, National Library, Web sites, etc at the national level and WB,IMF & UN publications at the international levels.

2.Collection of Primary data could be through a questionnaire or individual/group observation or by participatory methods
Primary data could be collected with census or sample surveys using the above. Both quantitative and qualitative data could be collected. Data collected through the above tools are normally cross section data. Time series data can also be collected from primary sources. Sample surveys are generally used to collect primary data and conclusion about the population is arrived at.

Selection of a sample
Census surveys are not feasible always since it may be extremely difficult, costly and time consuming. The purpose of sampling is to gain as much information as possible about the population by observing only a small proportion of that population. Therefore, the sample chosen should be a representative of the population i.e. It should represent the characteristics of the population.

Thus, the need is to identify an appropriate type of sampling with respect to the purpose of the study. This relates to testing relationships in the sample and generalizing the behavior of the observed variables in the sample with respect to the population with statistical tests. To address this aspect we need to know the different types of sampling, their relevance and uses.

Sampling - A few terms used

Element: Unit of population Sampling units: Elements considered for sampling in the sample. Universe: Aggregation of all elements. E.g. All people living in a country , All Executives. Population: Specified theoretically with specific characteristics.

Sampling .contd A population has a scientific connotation.

All Indian Universities in 2008. All executives SAIL in 2007-08 All workers in an Industry in 2008. A specified population is known as a sampling frame. A sample is drawn from the population using a specific sampling techniques with respect to the objectives of the study.

Sampling .contd
Parameter & Statistics Parameter: Summary description of a variable with respect to the population. Statistics: Summary description of a variable with respect to a sample. We test equality of sample statistics with population parameter for generalization of observations .

Types of Sampling-A brief introduction.

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS) -Each element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. - Sample is drawn by using a lottery method, a generator, a random number table or a computer package. - Use of random number table or computer package has wide application in selecting a sample in social survey when the population is relatively small

2.Systematic sampling.
In this process a sample of a required size is selected by selecting the elements of the population at the beginning at a random start and following the sampling fraction selecting every Kth element. Example: Let us suppose that we have a population size of 10,000 and we need to select a sample of 250. Thus we have to select every 40th item (10000/250=40) with a random start.

3. Stratified Sampling.

In this process the population is divided in to sub-populations with the stratification variables and using simple random sampling in each stratum a sample is drawn. Example: Attitude scaling of consumers of a particular product. Stratification variables could be income ,education, occupation etc.

4. Multistage Cluster Sampling (Sequential multiphase sampling) This process divides the population into different sub-population (clusters) with respect to geographical, agro-ecological and socioeconomic variables and the process is repeated more than once. In each stage SRS is applied. This is adopted when the population is large. Exple: Survey of consumption pattern done by NSS in India, assessment of productivity of different crops in a country.

5.Purposive sampling and Accidental sampling.

Purposive sampling is done with respect to the specific purpose of the study. Accidental sampling acquires the characteristics of SRS if done properly. Selection of a Sampling Technique depends On the size of the population, purpose of the study, time availability (urgency) and budget provision for the study.

Instruments for Data collection: Questionnaire Construction

The next step is formulation of a questionnaire for data collection ( for either census or a sample survey). There are several guidelines given by several authors about construction of a questionnaire. However, the guide lines are subjective The following are some of the points which a researcher may take note of while framing a questionnaire for a survey.

1. Questions and statements

The term 'questionnaire' suggests a set of questions to be asked to the respondents using a format. The researcher can also include statements/attributes to elicit responses in a Likert scale to measure attitude of the respondents. A Likert Scale may be of a 'seven' or a 'five" point scale.

Likert Scale Example 1. How important are the following characteristics for the performances of the company ?
Characteri stics Access to finance External financial service Sale/Marke ting skills Quality of products V.Imp Quite Imp Of little Undecided imp Not imp

Competitiv e pricing
Diverse customer base

.contd
Alternatively a continuum may also be used in a Likert Scale. Two extremes are specified and the rest is specified with numbers only 1-Strongly disagree & 7-Strongly agree 1.Least Important & 7-Most important

Example 2

Listed below are some of the services that may influence the choice of a bank. Please rate the following in a 5 point scale 1- Least Important 5- Most important (A 7 point scale could be used)

Example 2 (Contd)
Services 1. Courteous service 2.Compete nce of staff 3.Fast action on complaints 5.No of branches 6.Availabilit y of ATM services 1 2 3 4 5

7.Financial strength of the bank

Example 3 Likert Scale Contd

In a market research study for a consumer non - durable such as Premium Soap the researcher wants to find the importance attached by the consumer to specified attributes . He may use a Likert Scale to elicit responses from the consumers and identify attributes/group of attributes which are more important.

Example: Premium Soap. Please rate the following attributes in a scale of 7.

Attribut 1 es Brand 2 3 4 5 6 7

Price
Freshne ss Perfum e Size Hygiene Lather Multipur pose use Life

Likert scale Example 4

Rate your manager's communication skills on the following scale by encircling the appropriate number. Very Open Secretive 1 2 3 4 5 Use of both questions and statements provide flexibility in the design and makes the questionnaire more interesting.

2. Open-ended and close-ended questions

Open-ended questions: The researcher provides space for the answer. Close-ended questions: The respondent is asked to select answer(s) provided by the researcher. Two structural requirements for this type of questions. The response category should be exhaustive and it should end with an option 'others'. The answer category should be mutually exclusive except in case of multiple choice.

3. One should make items/questions clear.

Often the intent /perspectives are clear to the researcher but not clear to the respondent Example; a) What is your income ?..................... (from all sources? HH Income ? Per year?) b) The proposed policy change will have a positive effect on the sale volume. Yes/No

4. Questions should be relevant and the respondents should be competent to answer . Asking on brand preference to a person who does not know about it is meaningless. Asking a respondent in a village: 1.How much do you spend in your children's' education per year?...................... 2. What was your income in the last five years?.......................................

5.Questionnaire should include short items. One should avoid double barrel question.
The respondent should be able to read the items quickly, understand the intent and select or provide an answer without much difficulty. Short, clear and pinpointed questions help the respondent in understanding the intent of the questions and the answers will be accurate to a large extent.

Consider the following question:

The U S should abandon its space program and spend money on domestic program. When the researcher is using 'and', he should check whether he is asking a double-barrel question involving two different aspects. When some people would instantly agree, other may disagree and a few may not be able to answer. Thus, the answer will not be comparable.

6.Avoid negative items:

Inclusion of negative items leads to the possibilities of misinterpretation. Often 'not' or 'no' in the question goes unnoticed by the respondents and they give the answers which may lead to wrong conclusion.
E.g. Kashmir Problem is not an international issue: Yes/No High CQPI does not indicate intelligence Yes/No

7. Avoid biased items/ format leading to biased answer

Questions encouraging/forcing the respondents to answer in a particular way is a biased question. 1.Don't you feel that smoking is a bad habit? Yes/No 2. Inadequate response category: E.g.. Specifying yearly Income category. < 1 Lakh 1-5 Lakh 5-10 Lakh 10-15Lakh >15 The class interval has a bearing on the population characteristics.

8. Sequence of questions
The questions should be properly ordered to facilitate the respondents to answer systematically and with ease. Properly ordered questions become interesting for the respondent. Very often, it is better to start a questionnaire with identification particulars and demographic features. Some put these at the end of the questionnaire.

9.Do not use jargons or specialized language and avoid questions which requires calculations. 10. The questions should have a) A general instruction to the respondents regarding giving answer or choices of codes if codes are used. b) A set of instructions to the investigators. c) A draft questionnaire requires pretesting in the field which gives an opportunity to identify gaps/mistakes/omissions if any.

Statistical Techniques to Use

After the data are collected, the researcher tabulates the data by manually of with a statistical package Identification of appropriate tools for data analysis with respect to the hypotheses. The analysis facilitates test of hypotheses and arriving at the conclusion of the research. The conclusions help in decision making.

Tools for Data Analysis

Several Statistical/Mathematical Tools are used for data analysis. These tools are broadly divided into three categories. Univariate tools Bivariate Tools Multivariate Tools.

Group Assignment I
Discuss in the group and identify a topic of research (social or marketing or any other) Identify research problem with the help of literature review. Formulate hypotheses Specify data requirement Prepare a questionnaire to collect data.