Endocrine System

Endocrine System Components

Endocrine system - glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones Endocrinology the study of this system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders Endocrine glands organs that are traditional sources of hormones Hormones - chemical messengers that are transported by the bloodstream and stimulate physiological responses in cells of another tissue or organ, often a considerable distance away

Organs of the endocrine system (purple) and other organs containing tissues that secrete hormones (tan)

Pineal Gland
Secretes melatonin, which affects reproduction function and helps establish circadian (day/night) rhythms

Hypothalamus
Secretes hormones involved with fluid balance, smooth muscle contraction, and the control of hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary gland

Parathyroid Glands
Secrete a hormone important to the regulation of calcium ion concentrations in body fluids

Pituitary Gland
Secretes multiple hormones that regulate the endocrine activities of the adrenal cortex, thyroid gland, and reproductive organs, and a hormone that stimulates melanin production

Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

Heart: Secretes hormones involved in the regulation of blood volume

Thyroid Gland
Secretes hormones that affect metabolic rate and calcium levels in body fluids.

Thymus: Secretes hormones involved in the stimulation and coordination of the immune response
Digestive Tract: Secretes numerous hormones involved in the coordination of system functions, glucose metabolism, and appetite Kidneys: Secrete hormones that regulate blood cell production and the rates of calcium and phosphate absorption by the intestinal tract Gonads: Secrete hormones affecting growth, metabolism, and sexual characteristics, as well as hormones coordinating the activities of organs in the reproductive system

Adrenal Glands
Secretes hormones involved with mineral balance, metabolic control, and resistance to stress; the adrenal medullae release E and NE during sympathetic activation

Testis

Pancreas (Pancreatic Islets)

Secretes hormones regulating the rate of glucose uptake and utilization by body tissues Ovary

Anatomy of Hypothalamus
Provides highest level of endocrine control Shaped like a flattened funnel Forms floor and walls of third ventricle of the brain Regulates primitive functions of the body from water balance and thermoregulation to sex drive and childbirth Many of its functions carried out by pituitary gland

The three mechanisms by which the hypothalamus integrates the activities of the nervous and endocrine systems
The hypothalamus functions as an endocrine organ. Hypothalamic neurons synthesize two hormonesantidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OXT)and transport them along axons within the infundibulum. The hypothalamus secretes regulatory hormones, special hormones that control endocrine cells in the pituitary gland. The hypothalamic regulatory hormones control the secretory activities of endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers that exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae. When the sympathetic division is activated, the adrenal medullae are stimulated directly and immediately.

HYPOTHALAMUS

Preganglionic motor fibers

Infundibulum

Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla Posterior lobe of pituitary gland

Anterior lobe of pituitary gland

Adrenal gland

Hormones released control the activities of endocrine cells in the thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and reproductive organs.

ADH and oxytocin are released into the circulation.

Upon direct neuronal stimulation, the adrenal medullae secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the circulation.

Control of the production of anterior pituitary hormones by hypothalamic regulatory hormones Hypophyseal Portal System
The capillary networks in the median eminence are supplied by the superior hypophyseal artery. Before leaving the hypothalamus, the capillary networks unite to form a series of larger vessels that spiral around the infundibulum to reach the anterior lobe.

Neurons of these structures manufacture antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, respectively, which are released by synaptic terminals at capillaries in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland Supraoptic nuclei Paraventricular nuclei Neurosecretory neurons

HYPOTHALAMUS

Superior hypophyseal artery The vessels between the median eminence and the anterior lobe carry blood from one capillary network to another. Blood vessels that link two capillary networks are called portal vessels; in this case, they have the histological structure of veins, so they are called portal veins.

Infundibulum Inferior hypophyseal artery

Posterior lobe of pituitary gland Endocrine cells

Once within the anterior lobe, these vessels form a second capillary network that branches among the endocrine cells.
Hypophyseal veins

Anterior lobe of pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

Suspended from hypothalamus by a stalk infundibulum

Location and size

Housed in a depression of the sphenoid bone called sella turcica Size and shape of kidney bean 1.3 cm wide

Composed of two structures with independent origins and separate functions

Fleshy and glandular

adenohypophysis (anterior or glandular pituitary) - three-quarters of pituitary neurohypophysis (posterior or neural pituitary) one quarter of pituitary
Down growth from brain Neural composition

Pituitary Gland

Histology of Pituitary Gland

Chromophobe Basophil

Acidophil

(a) Anterior pituitary

Unmyelinated nerve fibers Glial cells (pituicytes)

(b) Posterior pituitary

Histology of Anterior Pituitary Gland

Acidophils have cytoplasm that stains red or orange Cells that contain the polypeptide hormones : growth hormone and prolactin Basophils have cytoplasm that stains a bluish colour Cells that contain the glycoprotein hormones : thyroid stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotrophic hormones Chromophobes have cytoplasm that stains very poorly These are cells that have minimal or no hormonal content. Some chromophobes may also represent stem cells that have not yet differentiated into hormone-producing cells

Hypothalamic Hormones
Eight hormones produced in hypothalamus
Six regulate the anterior pituitary Two produced in hypothalamus and via axoplasmic transport are stored in the posterior pituitary from where they are released into the blood circulation (Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone)

Six releasing and inhibiting hormones stimulate or inhibit the anterior pituitary

TRH, CRH, GnRH, and GHRH are releasing hormones that affect anterior pituitary secretion of TSH, PRL, ACTH, FSH, LH, and GH PIH inhibits secretion of prolactin SOMATOSTATIN (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or somatotropin release-inhibiting factor (SRIF) inhibits secretion of growth hormone & thyroid stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary

Hypophyseal Portal System

Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones travel in hypophyseal portal system (system of blood vessels
hypothalamus to anterior pituitary Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary

that link the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary in the brain) from
Portal venules

Axons to Neuron primary cell body capillaries

Superior hypophyseal artery Hypothalamic hormones Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Thyrotropin-releasing hormone Corticotropin-releasing hormone Prolactin-inhibiting hormone Growth hormonereleasing hormone Somatostatin Anterior lobe hormones Follicle-stimulating hormone Luteinizing hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) Adrenocorticotropic hormone Prolactin Growth hormone

Primary capillaries Portal venules Secondary capillaries Anterior lobe Posterior lobe

Hypophyseal portal system:

Hypothalamic Hormones
Two other hypothalamic hormones are oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by posterior pituitary gland
Produced by neurosecretory neurons Transported to posterior pituitary by axoplasmic transport Both stored and released by posterior pituitary Right and left paraventricular nuclei produce oxytocin (OT) Supraoptic nuclei produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Posterior pituitary does not synthesize them but merely stores these hormones

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
increases water retention thus reducing urine volume and prevents dehydration also called vasopressin because it can cause vasoconstriction surge of hormone released during sexual arousal and orgasm
promotes feelings of sexual satisfaction and emotional bonding between partners stimulates labor contractions during childbirth stimulates flow of milk during lactation promotes emotional bonding between lactating mother and infant
stimulate uterine contractions and propulsion of semen

OT (oxytocin)

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Anterior lobe of the pituitary synthesizes and secretes six principal hormones Two gonadotropin hormones that target gonads
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
LH (luteinizing hormone)
stimulates secretion of ovarian sex hormones, development of ovarian follicles, and sperm production

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

stimulates ovulation, stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone, stimulates testes to secrete testosterone

stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone which increases metabolic rate, stimulates appetite, increase growth of hair, skin, teeth, increase respiratory rate, increase heart rate

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids e.g. cortisol which stimulates fat and protein metabolism, gluconeogenesis, helps to repair damaged tissues and has an antiinflammatory effect after birth stimulates mammary glands to synthesize milk, enhances secretion of testosterone by testes stimulates mitosis and cellular differentiation

PRL (prolactin)

GH (growth hormone)

Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Target Organ Relationships

Hypothalamus
TRH GnRH CRH GHRH Liver

PRL Mammary gland

PRL

GH

IGF

Fat, muscle, bone

TSH Thyroid

ACTH Adrenal cortex

LH FSH

Figure 17.6
Testis Ovary

Principle hormones and target organs

An overview of the relationships between hypothalamic and pituitary hormones, and some effects of pituitary hormones on target tissues
Hypothalamus
Indirect Control through Release of Regulatory Hormones
Growth hormonereleasing hormone (GH-RH) Growth hormone- Prolactin- Prolactininhibiting releasing inhibiting hormone factor hormone (GH-IH) (PRF) (PIH)

Direct Release of Hormones

Sensory stimulation Gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH) Osmoreceptor stimulation

Corticotropin- Thyrotropinreleasing releasing hormone hormone (TRH) (CRH)

Regulatory hormones are released into the hypophyseal portal system for delivery to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Adrenal cortex

Anterior lobe of pituitary gland

ACTH

Posterior lobe of pituitary gland

ADH

Adrenal glands

TSH

GH

OXT

Kidneys

Liver Thyroid gland

Somatomedins

PRL FSH

MSH LH

Males: Smooth muscle in ductus deferens and prostate gland Females: Uterine smooth muscle and mammary glands

Glucocorticoids (steroid hormones) Bone, muscle, other tissues Thyroid hormones Inhibin Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone Ovaries of female

Melanocytes (uncertain significance in healthy adults) Mammary glands Testes of male

Inhibin

The control of hypothalamic and pituitary hormone secretion by negative feedback

Pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

Releasing hormone (RH) TRH

Hormone 1 (from pituitary) TSH ACTH

Endocrine target organ

Hormone 2 (from target organ) Thyroid hormones Glucocorticoids Inhibin

RH CRH

Thyroid gland
Adrenal cortex

Testes
Anterior lobe FSH GnRH LH Hormone 1 Negative feedback Ovaries Testes Ovaries

Inhibin Estrogens
Progestins Estrogens Androgens

Endocrine organ

Hormone 2 KEY
Stimulation

Target cells

Inhibition

The secretion of growth hormone (GH), involves both releasing and inhibiting hormones. This provides a more rapid and precise regulation of GH.

GH-IH GH-RH

Stimulation
Inhibition

Anterior lobe

GH
Liver Somatomedins

Epithelia, adipose tissue, liver

Stimulates growth of skeletal muscle, cartilage, and many other tissues

Growth Hormone
GH has widespread effects on the body tissues
especially cartilage, bone, muscle, and fat

Stimulates liver cells to synthesize somatomedins which increase uptake of amino acids and their incorporation into proteins by various tissues Suppresses protein catabolism (breakdown) Lipid metabolism increased fat catabolized by adipocytes (protein-sparing effect) provides energy for growing tissues In liver stimulates breakdown of glycogen Bone growth, thickening, and remodeling influenced, especially during childhood and adolescence GH levels decline gradually with age

Pituitary Disorders
Hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH)
especially hands, feet and face

Acromegaly due to hypersecretion of GH in adults causing thickening of bones and soft tissues

problems in childhood or adolescence

gigantism if hypersecretion (excessive production of GH in chlidren) pituitary dwarfism if hyposecretion rare since growth hormone is now made by genetically engineered bacteria

Age 9

Age 16

Age 33

Age 52

Gigantism

The control of prolactin (PRL) secretion by a pair of regulatory hormones

PIH

Stimulation

PRF

Inhibition

PIH (dopamine) inhibits release of prolactin most of the time. Each month before menstruation begins, secretion of PIH diminishes and levels of prolactin increase. During pregnancy prolactin levels rise due to increase secretion of PRF

Anterior lobe PRL

Stimulates mammary glands

Pineal Gland

Pineal Gland

Pineal Gland
Pineal gland - attached to roof of third ventricle beneath the posterior end of corpus callosum After age 7, it undergoes involution (shrinkage)
down 75% by end of puberty tiny mass of shrunken tissue in adults

Produces melatonin, a hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and photoperiodic (seasonal) functions i.e. it regulates the gonads and the annual breeding cycle It regulates the hormonal changes that usher in sexual maturity puberty during adolescence i.e. may regulate timing of puberty in humans Today it is associated with the sixth chakra whose awakening is linked to prophecy and increased psychic awareness as consciousness ascends.

Thymus
Bilobed gland in the mediastinum superior to the heart
goes through involution after puberty

Site of maturation of T lymphocytes important in immune defense Secretes hormones (thymopoietin, thymosin, and thymulin) that stimulate development of other lymphatic organs and activity of Tlymphocytes
Thyroid Trachea Thymus

Thyroid Gland
Largest endocrine gland
composed of two lobes and an isthmus below the larynx dark reddish brown color due to rich blood supply

Superior thyroid artery and vein

Thyroid cartilage

Secretes thyroxine (T4 because of 4 iodine atoms) and triiodothyronine (T3) T4 which is converted to T3

Thyroid gland
Isthmus

increases metabolic rate, O2 consumption, heat production (calorigenic effect), appetite, growth hormone secretion, alertness and quicker reflexes

Inferior thyroid vein

Trachea

Parafollicular (C or clear) cells secrete calcitonin with rising blood calcium

stimulates osteoblast activity and bone formation

Control of Pituitary: Feedback from Target Organs

Negative feedback 6

TRH

Negative feedback inhibition

4

+ 5 2

Target organs
+

increased target organ hormone levels inhibits release of hormones

TSH Thyroid hormone

+ 3

Stimulatory effect Inhibitory effect

Thyroid Gland Disorders

Goiter any pathological enlargement of the thyroid gland - Hashimoto's thyroiditis or chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis

is an autoimmune disease in which the thyroid gland is gradually destroyed by a variety of cell and antibody mediated immune processes Endemic goiter dietary iodine deficiency, no TH, no - feedback, increased TSH stimulates hypertrophy Toxic goiter (Graves disease) autoantibodies mimic the effect of TSH on the thyroid causing hypersecretion overgrown thyroid produces functional TH (increased levels)

Goiter

Parathyroid Glands
Usually four glands partially embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland
can be found from as high as hyoid bone to as low as aortic arch
Pharynx (posterior view)

Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood Ca2+ levels

Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Esophagus Trachea

promotes synthesis of calcitriol increases absorption of Ca2+ decreases urinary excretion increases bone resorption increases osteoclast activity

Parathyroid Disorders
Hypoparathyroidism
surgical excision during thyroid surgery fatal tetany in 3 - 4 days due to rapid decline in blood calcium level

Hyperparathyroidism - excess PTH secretion

parathyroid tumor bones become soft, fragile, and deformed Ca2+ and phosphate blood levels increase promotes renal calculi formation

Adrenal Gland
Adrenal gland Suprarenal vein Kidney Connective Adrenal cortex tissue capsule Adrenal medulla

Zona glomerulosa

Adrenal cortex

Zona fasciculata

(a)

Zona reticularis Adrenal medulla

(b)

Small gland that sits on top of each kidney They are retroperitoneal like the kidney

Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal medulla inner core, 10% to 20% of gland which is surrounded by a much thicker adrenal cortex constituting 80% 90% Consists primarily of modified sympathetic neurons called chromaffin cells (neuroendocrine cells) which have no dendrites or axons but receive sympathetic input and release their products directly into the blood stream. When stimulated release catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

Effect is longer lasting than neurotransmitters increases alertness (fight and flight) and prepares body for physical activity mobilize high energy fuels, lactate, fatty acids, and glucose glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis boost glucose levels glucose-sparing effect because inhibits insulin secretion muscles use fatty acids saving glucose for brain increases blood pressure, heart rate, blood flow to muscles, pulmonary air flow and metabolic rate decreases digestion and urine production

Adrenal Cortex
Surrounds adrenal medulla and produces major steroid hormones called corticosteroids Secretes 3 major categories of steroid hormones from three layers of glandular tissue
zona glomerulosa (thin, outer layer)
cells are arranged in rounded clusters secretes mineralocorticoids e.g. aldosterone regulate the bodys electrolyte balance i.e. sodium retention cells arranged in fascicles separated by capillaries secretes glucocorticoids e.g. cortisol regulate metabolism of glucose, suppresses immune system, helps body adapt to stress and repair tissues cells in branching network secretes sex steroids e.g. androgens, estrogen (estradiol). DHEA is converted to testosterone in other tissues.

zona fasciculata (thick, middle layer)

zona reticularis (narrow, inner layer)

Cushing syndrome - excess cortisol secretion hyperglycemia, hypertension, weakness, edema rapid muscle and bone loss due to protein catabolism abnormal fat deposition moon face and buffalo hump Adrenogenital syndrome (AGS) adrenal androgen hypersecretion (accompanies Cushing) enlargement of external sexual organs in children and early onset of puberty masculinizing effects on women increased body hair, deeper voice and beard growth

Adrenal Disorders