1

Principles of radio transmitters

and receivers
Dr Ding JiaXin
Engineer of Radio Monitoring Division
State Radio Monitoring Center
dingjiaxin@srrc.org.cn
+8610-68312933

Radio Monitoring and Spectrum Management Training
(China,23-31,May,2005)

2
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

3
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

4
What are radio transceivers?
Radio transmitters:
electrical signals => radio waves
Radio receivers:
radio waves => electrical signals
Radio transceivers
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Typical radio transceivers:
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Basic framework
RF
Section
Baseband
Section
antenna
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What is an RF signal
Analog signal
Its spectrum is not centered around
zero frequency
f
0
f1
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RF section is the design
bottleneck
Noise
Power
Linearity
Gain
Frequency
Supply voltage

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Summary:
Radio transceivers functions
RF and Baseband
RF signal
RF section is bottleneck
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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Basic concepts
Memoryless system
Time-invariant system
Linear system
Harmonics
Gain compression


12
Basic concepts (cont.)
Desensitization & Blocking
Intermodulation
Noise figure
Sensitivity
Dynamic range
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A memoryless system:
Its output does not depend on the
past values of its input.


Memoryless
system
) ( ) ( t x t y o = ) (t x
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A time-invariant system:
If

then


) ( ) ( t y t x
Time-invariant
system
) ( t t x
) ( y t t
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A linear system:
If


then



) ( ) (
1 1
t y t x
) ( ) (
2 2
t y t x
Linear
system
) ( b
2
t x
) ( a
1
t x
) ( ) ( a
2 1
t by t y +
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A memoryless, time-invariant,
nonlinear system:
The output signal can include frequency
components that do not exist in the input
signal
Investigative
system
) (t x ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3
3
2
2 1
t x t x t x t y o o o + + ~
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Effects of nonlinearity
Harmonics
Gain compression
Desensitization and Blocking
Intermodulation
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Harmonics:

If


then

system
) (t x
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3
3
2
2 1
t x t x t x t y o o o + + =
t f A t x
1
2 cos ) ( t =
t f
A
f t
A
t f
A
A
A
t y
1
3
3
1
2
2
1
3
3
1
2
2
6 cos
4
4 cos
2
2 cos )
4
3
(
2
) ( t
o
t
o
t
o
o
o
+ + + + =
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Harmonics:
System y(t) x(t)
f
f1
x(t)
0
f f1
y(t)
0
2f1 3f1
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Gain compression:
As the signal amplitude increases,
the gain begins to vary

The output is a compressive function
of the input

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1-dB compression point:
20logAin
20logAout
1dB
A1-dB
A measure of the maximum input range
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Desensitization & Blocking:
Systems with compressive
characteristics process a weak desired
signal with a strong interferer

The weak signal may experience a
vanishing small gain

If the gain drops to zero, the signal is
blocked
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Blocking signals:
Refers to interferers that desensitize a
circuit even if the gain does not fall to
zero

Many receivers must be able to
withstand blocking signals 60 to 70 dB
greater than the wanted signal
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Intermodulation (IM)
When two signals with different
frequencies are applied to a nonlinear
system, the output in general exhibits
some components that are not
harmonics of the input frequencies

f f1 f2
f
f1 f2
2f1-f2 2f2-f1
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IM is a troublesome effect
Particular interest are the third-order
IM products at 2f1-f2 and 2f2-f1
Interferers
Desired
Channel
f f1 f2
f f1 f2
2f1-f2 2f2-f1
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Third intercept point (I P3) :
20logA
K=1
K=3
IIP3
OIP3
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The relationship of 1-dB
compression point and IIP3:
The input level at 1-dB compression
point is less 10 dB than IIP3
B
A
A
IP
B
d 6 . 9
3
d 1
~

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Noise Figure (NF)
Noise factor= SNRin / SNRout
Noise figure=10lg(Noise factor)

The noise figure of a noiseless system is
equal to 0 dB
The typical NF of receiver is less than
12 dB
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Sensitivity:
The minimum signal level that the
system can detect with acceptable
performance

a function of the bandwidth


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Dynamic Range (DR):
The ratio of the maximum input level
that the system can tolerate to the
minimum input level that the system
provides a reasonable signal quality

The definition is quantified in different
applications differently
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Summary
The concepts of memoryless,
Time-invariance, linearity

Effects of nonlinearity
Harmonics
Gain compression
Desensitization and Blocking
Intermodulation
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Summary (cont.):
NF 12 dB
IIP3 17 dBm
DR 100 dB
AIIP3 A1-dB+10dB
Blocking level: 60~70 dB
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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Radio transceiver architectures:
General considerations
Radio receiver architectures
Radio transmitter architectures
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Radio transceiver architectures:
General considerations
Radio receiver architectures
Radio transmitter architectures
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Radio receiver block diagram:
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
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Radio transmitter block diagram:
BPF
IF RF
HPA
Antenna
Amplifier
LO
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
HPA: High-Power Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
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Band & Channel:
f
Receive
band
Desired
channel
f
BPF
LNA
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Band selection

Channel selection

front-end BPF only select the band of
interest , postponing channel selection
to some other point in the receiver
Band selection & Channel selection:
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Radio transceiver architectures:
General considerations
Radio receiver architectures
Radio transmitter architectures
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Radio receiver architectures:
Superheterodyne architecture

Direct-conversion architecture
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Superheterodyne architecture:
BPF1 BPF2
Mixer
t f V
RF RF
t 2 cos
t f V
LO LO
t 2 cos
LNA
IF amplifier
RF
IF
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Basic blockings:
BPF1: band selection
BPF2: channel selection
Mixer: down conversion mixing
fIF=fLO - fRF
LNA: providing enough gain
IF amplifier: amplify IF signal
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The advantages of
superheterodyne architecture:
fIF<<fRF , channel selection easy

fIF<<fRF , A/D conversion easy

RF, IF, Baseband sections can amplify
received signal 100 ~ 200 dB together
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Problem of image:
Mixer is not a ideal multiplier
Mixer is a nonlinearity device
Image frequency
Desired channel
Image
f
f
fRF fim
fLO
fIF fIF
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Problem of image (cont.):
BPF
t f
LO
t 2 cos
mixer
f
fIF
Desired channel
Image
f
f
fRF fim
fLO
fIF fIF
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Image-reject filter:
f f1 fim
2fIF
Image reject
filter
Image
reject filter
LNA
t f
LO
t 2 cos
mixer
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The choice of IF:
fIF higher, sensitivity better

fIF lower , selectivity better
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A question:
Why the RF spectrum is not simply
translated to the baseband in the first
downconversion
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Direct-conversion (zero-IF)
architecture:
LPF
f
mixer
f
LNA
0
f1
t f
1
2 cos t
LPF
LNA
t f
1
2 cos t
LPF
(a)
t f
1
2 sin t
(b)
Baseband
I
Baseband
Q
LPF: Low-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
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The advantages of
direct-conversion architecture:
fIF = 0 , no image-reject filter is required

Be easily realized by integrated circuit
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The disadvantages of
direct-conversion architecture:
DC offsets
LO leakage
Flicker noise
I/Q mismatch
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Radio transceiver architectures:
General considerations
Radio receiver architectures
Radio transmitter architectures
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Radio transmitter architectures:
Direct-conversion architecture

Two-step architecture
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Direct-conversion architecture:
Matching
Network

Power
amplifier
Baseband
I
Baseband
Q
t f
c
t 2 cos
t f
c
t 2 sin
antenna
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Direct-conversion architecture
(cont.):
Modulation and upconversion in the
same circuit
Matching network
Baseband signal is strong
The noise of the mixers is not critical
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The disadvantage of
Direct-conversion architecture:
LO pulling

Power
amplifier
I
Q
LO
BPF
f fLO
LO: Local Oscillator
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Two-step architectures:

Baseband
I
Baseband
Q
t f
1
2 sin t
t f
1
2 cos t BPF BPF
f
f1+f2
t f
2
2 cos t
Power
amplifier
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Summary:
Basic blocks of transceivers
antenna
filter
mixer
oscillator
amplifier
Band & Channel
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Summary (cont.):
Superheterodyne receiver
Image frequency
Direct-conversion receiver

Direct-conversion transmitter
LO pulling
Two-step transmitter
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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

62
Function of amplifiers:
Make signals bigger
Small signal in
Big signal out
Amplifier
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Classification of amplifiers:
High-Power Amplifiers (HPA)
Low-Noise Amplifiers (LNA)
Other special amplifiers
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Position of HPA:
BPF
IF RF
HPA
Antenna
Amplifier
LO
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
HPA: High-Power Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio transmitter architecture
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Function of HPA:
Delivering RF power to antenna
efficiently
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HPA characteristics:
Output power

Efficiency
Power-Added Efficiency (PAE)

dc
in
PAE
P
P P
PAE

= =
out
q
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Position of LNA:
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio receiver architecture
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LNA characteristics:
Enough gain
As little noise as possible
Large dynamic range
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Typical LNA characteristics:
NF 2dB
IIP3 -10dBm
Gain 15dB

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Other special amplifier:
Variable Gain Amplifier (VGA)
Small signal in Big signal out
VGA
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Summary:
High-Power Amplifiers (HPA)
Low-Noise Amplifiers (LNA)
Other special amplifiers
VGA
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Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

73
Functions of mixers:
Frequency translation
Up-conversion
Down-conversion
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Position of mixer:
BPF
RF IF
Amplifier
Antenna
LNA
LO
BPF
Mixer
BPF: Band-Pass Filter
LNA: Low-Noise Amplifier
LO : Local Oscillator
radio receiver architecture
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Mixers fundamentals:
The core of all mixers is a multiplication
of two signals in the time domain
| | t f f t f f
AB
t f B t f A ) ( 2 cos ) ( 2 cos
2
) 2 cos )( 2 cos (
2 1 2 1 2 1
+ + = t t t t
fRF
fLO
fIF
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Implementation of mixers
VRF
VLO
S1
VIF
RL
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Passive mixers:
Not providing any gain
A higher linearity and speed
Application in microwave and
base station circuits
VRF
VIF
RL
VLO
M1
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Active mixers:
Providing some gain
Be widely used in RF systems
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Conversion gain:
The ratio of the voltage of the IF signal to
the voltage of the RF signal

Approximately 10 dB
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Noise figure of mixer:
Single-sideband noise figure (SSB NF)
Double-sideband noise figure (DSB NF)

SSB NF = DSB NF + 3 dB
SSB NF : 10 ~15 dB

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Port-to-port isolation:
To minimize interaction among the RF,IF,
and LO ports

The required isolation levels greatly
depend on the environment in which the
mixer is utilized

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Summary:
Frequency translation
The core of all mixers is a multiplication
of two signals in the time domain

Implementation of mixer
Passive / Active mixer
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Summary (cont.):
Typical mixer characteristics:
SSB NF 10-15dB
IIP3 5dBm
Gain 10dB
Port-to-port isolation 10-20dB
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Summary:
1. Introduction
2. Basic concepts
3. Radio transceiver architectures
4. Amplifiers
5. Mixers
6. Oscillators
7. Modulation and Demodulation

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Question and Answer
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LUNCH TIME