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By:
Orley G. Fadriquel
WIND TURBINE
Blade or Propeller
Turbine
Storage
Battery
Transformer
High Wind Velocity
Lower Wind Velocity
Generator
Generator
Transformer
Air Fuel
Piston Cylinder
Crank Shaft
Brake power
Indicated
Power
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
Generator
Thermodynamics is
the study of energy and
its transformation, the
direction of flow of heat,
and the availability of
energy to do work.
The word
thermodynamics
derives from the two
Greek words therme
which means heat:
and dynamikos
which means power.
Approaches in the Study of
Thermodynamics
1.Microscopic or statistical
approach
2.Macroscopic approach
Microscopic or Statistical Approach
Structure of matter is considered and a
large number of variables are needed to
describe the state of matter.
The matter is composed of several
molecules and behaviour of each
individual molecule is studied.
Each molecule is having
certain position, velocity and
energy at a given instant.
The velocity and energy
change very frequently due to
collision of molecules.
Macroscopic approach
In macroscopic approach the
structure of matter is not
considered, in fact it is simple,
and only few variables are used
to describe the state of matter.
In this approach, a certain
quantity of matter composed of
large number of molecules is
considered without the events
occurring at the molecular level
being taken into account.
In this case, the properties of a particular
mass of substance, such as its
temperature, pressure, and volume are
analyzed. Generally, in engineering, this
analysis is used for study of heat engines
and other devices. This method gives the
fundamental knowledge for the analysis
of a wide variety of engineering
problems
Applications of Thermodynamics
Application of thermodynamic
principles in practical design tasks,
may be of a simple pressure cooker
or of a complex chemical plant.
The applications of thermodynamic
laws and principles are found in all
fields of energy technology.
steam and nuclear power plants
gas turbines
internal combustion engines
air conditioning
Refrigeration
gas dynamics
jet propulsion
compressors
others
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Dimensions implies physical quantities.
Examples are length, time, mass, force,
volume and velocity. In engineering
analysis, it is most important to check the
dimensional homogeneity of an equation
relating physical quantities. This means
that the dimensions of terms on one side
of the equation must equal those on the
other side.
Primary dimensions implies
units of physical quantities
conceived of and used to
measure other physical
quantities related by definition
and laws
Secondary dimensions
implies other physical
quantities measured using
primary dimensions
Unit is a definite standard or
measure of a dimension.
For example, foot, meters and
angstroms are all different units with
the common dimension of length.
A unit is any specified amount of a
quantity by comparison with which
any other quantity of the same kind
is measure.
In any dimensional
system, the units of
length, time, mass and
forces are related
through Newtons
second law of motion.
The total force acting on a
body is proportional to the
product of the mass and the
acceleration in the direction of
the force, thus,
F o ma ; F = 1/k ma
where k is the proportionality
constant.
UNITS OF DIFFERENT DIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS
Name of
system
Unit
of
Mass
Unit of
Lengt
h
Unit of
time
Unit
of
force
K in
F = 1/k ma
Definition of terms
SI
(mks)
kg
m
m Sec N 1.0
9.806
1.0 N is the force needed to accelerate a
mass of 1.0 kg at 1.0 m/s
2
1.0 kg
f
is the force needed to accelerate a
mass of 1.0 kg
m
at 9.8066 m/s
2
English
Engg
lb
m
Ft Sec lb
f
32.17
1.0 lb
f
is the force needed to accelerate a
mass of 1.0 lb
m
at 32.174 ft/sec
2
Absolute
Engg
Slug Ft Sec lb
f
1.0
1.0 lb
f
is the force needed to accelerate a
mass of 1.0 slug mass at 1.0 ft/sec
2
Absolute
metric
(cgs)
g
m
Cm Sec dyne 1.0
980.66
1.0 dyne is the force needed to accelerate a
mass of 1.0 g at 1.0 cm/sec
2
1.0 g
f
is the force needed to accelerate a
mass 1.0 g
m
at 980.66 cm/s
2
2
f
m
s kg
m kg
2
m
s N
m kg
2
f
m
s lb
ft lb
2
f
s lb
ft slug
2
m
s dyne
cm g
2
f
m
s g
cm g
water
= 1 g
m
/cm
3
= 1000 kg
m
/m
3
= 62.4 lb
m
/ft
3
.
2. Weight density also known as
the specific weight, it is defined as
the weight per unit volume.
Where :
g = 9.80665 m/s
2
= 32.174 ft/s
2
Water at standard conditions,
water
= 9.81 kN/m = 62.4 lb/ft
3
Specific volume - defined as the
volume per unit of mass of the
reciprocal of density
Weight, W force exerted by
gravity on a given mass, depends on
both the mass of the substance and
the gravitational field strength,
W = mg
Specific gravity the
dimensionless parameter, it is
defined as the ratio of the
density (or specific weight) of
a substance to some standard
density(specific weight)
For liquid substances
For gaseous substances
at STP = 1.2 kg/m
3
at 1 atm, 21.1
o
C
air
gas
air
gas
. G . S
=
O H
LIQUID
O H
LIQUID
2 2
. G . S
=
.
Pressure defined as the normal
force exerted by a system on a
unit area of its boundary.
Manometer the instrument used
in measuring pressure.
Standard reference atmospheric
pressure
1 atm = 14.7 psia
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg at 32
o
F
= 760 torrs
= 101.325 kpa
= 34 ft H
2
0
= 1.033 kg/cm
2
Types of pressure
a. Gage pressure, P
g
pressure of a fluid
and the atmospheric pressure,
measured using manometer or bourdon
gage
Note:
-Vacuum pressure is negative pressure;
-measured using fluid pressure <
atmospheric pressure
b. Atmospheric pressure, P
atm
- measured using a barometer, refer to
standard atmospheric cited above
c. Absolute pressure, P
abs
sum of the
gage pressure and atmospheric
pressure.
Relationships among the types of
pressure
For P
abs
> P
atm
P
abs
= P
atm
+ P
g
For P
abs
<
Patm
P
abs
= P
atm
P
v
Also, P
g
= h = gh
Temperature it is an
intensive property,
originates with our sense
perceptions, rooted in the
notion of hotness or
coldness of a body
Types of Temperature
a. Arbitrary, t man made calibrated
a.1 Celsius scale,
o
C (used to be
Centigrade scale). Named after Anders
Celsius, a Swedish
- steam point - equilibrium temperature of pure
liquid water in contact with its vapor at one
atmosphere; 100
o
C
- ice point equilibrium temperature of ice and air-
saturated liquid pressure at a pressure of one
atmosphere. 0
o
C
a.2 Fahrenheit scale ,
o
F
Named after Gabriel Fahrenheit, a
German who devised the first mercury-
in-glass thermometer; earlier
thermometer fluids used were alcohol
and linseed oil
- steam point : 212
o
F
- ice point : 32
o
F
b. Absolute, T measured from absolute zero,
all molecular motion cease. 0 Kelvin or 0
Rankine
b.1 Kelvin Scale, K
Named after William Thomson, aka Lord
Kelvin who related absolute scale to the
Celsius scale. The ice point is assigned with a
value of 273.15 K and the steam point is
assigned with the value 373.15 K. The triple
point of water is 273.16 K.
b.2 Rankine Scale, R
Named after William Macquorn
Rankine, a Scotish. The ice
point is assigned with a value
of 491.67 R and the steam
point is assigned with the
value 671.67 R The triple point
of water is 491.69 R.
THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF A SYSTEM
Thermodynamic
property B
Thermodynamic
property A
1
2
ZEROTH LAW
This law states that when two
bodies, isolated from other
environment are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body,
the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
ZEROTH LAW
If two closed system with
different temperatures are brought
together in thermal contact with a
third system, the heat will flow from
the system with high temperature
to the system with low temperature
until the bodies reach thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Coffee in a cup
Tcoffee = Tcup=Tsurroundings
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
If any one or more
properties of a system change,
the system is said to have
undergone a process; there
has been a change of state.
Thermodynamic processes that
are commonly experienced in
engineering practice:
1. Constant pressure/ Isobaric process
2. Constant volume/ Isochoric process
3. Constant temperature/ Isothermal
process
4. Reversible adiabatic/ Isentropic process
5. Polytropic process
6. Throttling process/ Iso-enthalpic process
REVERSIBLE AND
IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESS
Reversible Process
A reversible process for a system is
an ideal process which once having
taken place can be reversed in such a
way that the initial state and all
energies transformed during the
process can be completely regained
in both systems and surroundings.
This process does not leave
any net change in the system
or in the surroundings. A
reversible process is always,
quasi-static.
Irreversible Process
If the initial state and energies
transformed cannot be
restored without net change in
the system after the process
has taken place, it is called
irreversible.
Quasi-Static Process
Quasi means almost.
Infinite slowness is the
characteristic feature of
this process. It is also a
reversible process.
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
When a certain mass of
fluid in a particular state
passes through a series of
processes and returns to its
state, it undergoes a cycle.
p
v
v
1
p
2
p
1
v
2
A
B
1
2
C
Cycles. By our convention of signs, cycles that
trace a clockwise path, as A-1-B-C-A or A-1-B-2-
A are delivering work; cycles tracing a
counterclockwise path, as A-C-B-1-A or A-2-B-
1-A, are receiving work.
LAW OF CONSERVATION
OF MASS
The law of conservation
of mass states that mass
is indestructible.
The verbal form of the law is
(
=
(