Basic Analysis Method Circuit

Ch2 Basic Analysis Methods to Circuits
2.1 Equivalent Circuits

2.2 Basic Nodal and Mesh Analysis
2.3 Useful Circuit Analysis Techniques
References: Hayt-Ch3, 4; Gao-Ch2;
Circuits and Analog Electronics
Key Words:
Equivalent Circuits Network
Equivalent Resistance,
Equivalent Independent Sources

Equivalent Circuits Network

Two-terminal Circuits Network

b

N
1
I a
+
_
V

N
2
I a
b
+
V

a
b
c
d
6O
5O
15O
5O
How do we find I
1
and I
2
?
R
1
R
2

V

+
-
I
1
I
2

I
I
1
+ I
2
= I
2 1
2
1
1
R R
R
I
R
V
I
+
= =
2 1
1
2
2
R R
R
I
R
V
I
+
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
2 1 2 1
1 1
R R
V
R
V
R
V
I
2 1
2 1
2 1
1 1
1
R R
R R
I
R R
I V
+
=
+
=
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R
eq
+
=
Equivalent Resistance
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
V
R
V
I
eq
+
= =
i(t)
+
-
v(t)
i(t)
+
-
v(t)
R
eq

R
eq
is equivalent to the resistor network on the left in the sense that they
have the same i-v characteristics.
Method 2
I
V
R R ab o
= =
o
o
a
b
V
I
source
-free
sc
oc
o
I
V
R =
o
o
source
V
oc
Method 3
o
o
I
sc
source
Series and parallel Resistance
=
=
n
K
k eqs
R R
1

=
n
k
k eqp
1
R
1
R
1
=
=
n
k
k
G G
1
Method 1 (source-free)
Condition : without knowing V&I . We only know Rs
Condition : without knowing Rs . We only know V&I
In practice , Vs-source voltage VL- Local
L s L
V V I R
'
=
Let
10V; 0.1
s
V R
'
= = O
The IL-VL curve :
0
10
100
VL(V)
IL(A)
, Open Circuit (OC) . 0,
L L
V R = =
100A
SC
I = 0, 0
L L
V R = = , Short Circuit (SC) .
10V
OC
V =
0.1
OC
O
SC
V
R
I
= = O
P2.1
Method 1 ( ) = + = =
3 2 1
// R R R R R
ab o
( )
3 2 1
3 2 1
R R R
R R R
+ +
+
Method 2
o
o
V

R
1
R
2
R
3
a

b

I

( )
V
R R R
R R R
R R
V
R
V
I
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 1 3
+
+ +
=
+
+ =
( )
3 2 1
3 2 1
R R R
R R R
I
V
R R
ab o
+ +
+
= = =
o
o
V
S
R
1
R
2
R
3
a

b

+
-
sc
oc
o
I
V
R =
How do we find R
ab
?
S S
S
oC
V
R R R
R R
V R
R R R
V
V
3 2 1
2 1
3
3 2 1
+ +
+
= +
+ +
=
Method 3
3
/
sc s
I V R =
Source Transformation
Ideally:
An ideal current source has the voltage necessary to provide its
rated current
An ideal voltage source supplies the current necessary to provide
its rated voltage
Practice:
A real voltage source cannot supply arbitrarily large amounts of
current
A real current source cannot have an arbitrarily large terminal
voltage
Source Transformation
V
s

+
-
R
s

I
s

R
s

s s s
I R V =
s
s
s
R
V
I =
Note: Consistency between the current source ref. direction and the
voltage Source ref. terminals.
How do we find I
1
and I
2
?
Equivalent Source
I
s2

V

R
1
R
2

+
-
I
1
I
2

I
s1

( )
2 1
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
I I V
s s
+
=
I
eq

( )
2
1 1 2
1 1 2
s s
R V
I I I
R R R
= =
+
( )
1
2 1 2
2 1 2
s s
R V
I I I
R R R
= =
+
1 2 1 2
s s
I I I I + =
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1
s s
V V
I I V
R R R R
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
Equivalent Source
Series Voltage Source
o o
+ +
+
- -
-
V
S1
V
S2
V
Sn
o o
+ - V
S
=
=
n
k
Sk S
V V
1
=
=
n
k
Sk S
R R
1
parallel Current Source
o
o
I
S1
I
S2
I
Sn
o
o
I
S
I

=
=
n
k
Sk S
I I
1
R
S
=R
S1
// R
S2
//// R
Sn

Key Words:
Branch Analysis, Nodal Analysis,
Mesh (Loop) Analysis

Why?
The analysis techniques previously (voltage divider, equivalent
resistance, etc.) provide an intuitive approach to analyzing circuits
They are not systematic and cannot be easily automated by a
computer
Comments:
Analysis of circuits using node or loop analysis requires solutions
of systems of linear equations.
These equations can usually be written by inspection of the circuit.

_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1 I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
I
S
.
R
3
=80O
R
2
=0.4O
+
_
V
S
=14V
E
2
=12V
R
1
=0.5O

Branch Analysis
I
2

I
3

I
1

P2.2
How do we find I
1
and I
2,
I
3
?
KVL
Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
1 2
14 0.5 0.4 12 0 I I + + + =
2
1 2
2 0.4
4 0.8
0.5
I
I I
= =
2 3
12 0.4 80 0 I I + =
2
3 2
12 0.4
0.15 0.005
80
I
I I
+
= = +
2 2 2
4 0.8 0.15 0.005 I I I = + +
2
2.13A I =
1
2.29A I =
3
0.16A I =
KCL
1 2 3
I I I = +
2 2 2 2
1
1
2 0.4
0.5
s
V E I R I
I
R

= =
2 2 2 2
3
3
12 0.4
80
E I R I
I
R
+ +
= =
2 2
2
2 0.4 12 0.4
0.5 80
I I
I
+
= +
2
2.14A I =
1
2.29A I =
3
0.14A I =
Branch Analysis
write KCL equation for each independent node.
(n-1) KCL equations
write KVL equation for each independent mesh/loop
m-(n-1) KVL equations

Suppose m branches, n nodals

Branch Analysis
Heres a quick example of a circuit that we will see later when we
model the operation of transistors. For now, lets assume ideal
independent and dependent sources.
We can write the following
equations:
:
1
0
C CC
i i i + =
:
2 1
0
B
i i i + =
:
0
E B C
i i i =
C B
i i | =
2 2
0
o E E
V i R i R + =
1 1 2 2
0
CC
V i R i R =
B
i
-

-

-

Nodal Analysis
1) Choose a reference node
The reference node is called the ground node.
+
-
V
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

:
Nodal Analysis
1) Choose a reference node
0
+
-
V
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

I
4

I
5

I
6

I
7

I
8

KCL
:
:

. . .
Nodal Analysis
2) Assign node voltages to the other nodes
V
1
, V
2
, and V
3
are unknowns for which we solve using KCL.
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

I
4

I
5

I
6

I
7

I
8

0
Nodal Analysis
3) Apply KCL to each node other than the reference-express
currents in terms of node voltages.
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

I
4

I
5

I
6

I
7

I
8

0
O
=
500
2 1
4
V V
I
O
=
500
1
5
V
I
2
6
1K
V
I =
O
3 2
7
500
V V
I

=
O
3
8
500
V
I =
O
,
,
,
,
0
500 500
1 2 1
1
=
O
+
O
+
V V V
I
0
500 k 1 500
3 2 2 1 2
=
O
+
O
+
O
V V V V V
0
500 500
2
3 2 3
=
O
+
O
I
V V V
Node :
Node :
Node :
Node :
Node :
Node :
4 5 1
0 I I I + =
6 4 7
0 I I I =
8 7 2
0 I I I + =
KCL
Nodal Analysis
4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.
Node 1:

Node 2:

Node 3:

1
2
1
500 500
1
500
1
I
V
V =
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
0
500 500
1
k 1
1
500
1
500
3
2
1
=
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
+
O
V
V
V
2 3
2
500
1
500
1
500
I V
V
=
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
The left hand side of the equation:

The node voltage is multiplied by the sum of conductances of all
resistors connected to the node.
The neighbourly node voltages are multiplied by the conductance of the
resistor(s) connecting to the two nodes and to be subtracted.
The right hand side of the equation:
The right side of the equation is the sum of currents from sources
entering the node.
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

0
Nodal Analysis
Node 1:

Node 2:

Node 3:

1
2
1
500 500
1
500
1
I
V
V =
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
0
500 500
1
k 1
1
500
1
500
3
2
1
=
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
+
O
V
V
V
2 3
2
500
1
500
1
500
I V
V
=
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
O
+
O O
O
+
O
+
O O
O
+
O
2
1
3
2
1
0
500
1
500
1
500
1
0
500
1
500
1
k 1
1
500
1
500
1
0
500
1
500
1
500
1
I
I
V
V
V
Matrix Notation(Symmetric)
Nodal Analysis
Node 1:

Node 2:

Node 3:

1
2
1
500 500
1
500
1
I
V
V =
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
0
500 500
1
k 1
1
500
1
500
3
2
1
=
O
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
+
O
V
V
V
2 3
2
500
1
500
1
500
I V
V
=
|
.
|
\
|
O
+
O
+
O
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

G
11
V
1
+G
12
V
2
+G
13
V
3
=I
11
G
21
V
2
+G
22
V
2
+G
23
V
3
=I
22

G
31
V
1
+G
32
V
2
+G
33
V
3
=I
33
Nodal Analysis
What if there are dependent sources?
1kO 5mA
100I
b

+
-
V
o

50O
I
b

1kO
Example:
2 1
V
2
V
1

O
=
50
2 1
V V
I
b
0
k 1 50
100
50
2 2 1 1 2
=
O
+
O
O
V V V V V
(
=
(
(
(
(
O
+
O
+
O O
O
+
O
0
mA 5
k 1
1
50
100
50
1
50
100
50
1
50
1
50
1
k 1
1
2
1
V
V
Matrix is not symmetric due to the dependent source.
mA 5
50 k 1
2 1 1
=
O
+
O
V V V
Node 0
k 1
100
50
2 1 2
=
O
+
O
V
I
V V
b
Node
Nodal Analysis
What if there are voltage sources?
100I
b

+
-
V
o

50O
I
b

1kO
1kO
+
-
+ -
0.7V
1
4
V
1

V
2
V
3

V
4

2
3
3kO
R
1

R
2

R
3

R
4

Difficulty: We do not know I
b
the current
through the voltage source?
Equations: KCL at node 2, node 3, node 4, and
Unknowns: I
b
, V
1
, V
2
(V
3
),V
4
0
k 3 k 1
2 1 2
= +
O
+
O
b
I
V V V
Node 2:
Node 3:
0
50
4 3
=
O
b
I
V V
Independent Voltage Source:
Node 4:
0 100
k 1 50
4 4 3
= +
O
+
O
b
I
V V V
3 2
0.7V V V =
3 2
0.7V V V =
Nodal Analysis
What if there are voltage sources?
CURRENT
CONTROLLED
VOLTAGE
SOURCE
I
o
=?
x
kI V V 2
1 2
=
KCL AT SUPERNODE
0 =
2
+ 2 +
2
+ 4 -
2 1
k
V
mA
k
V
mA
k
V
I
x
2
1
=
1 2 1
2 2 V V kI V
x
= =
) ( 4
2 1
V V V = + ) ( 8 3
2
V V =
mA
k
V
I
O
3
4
2
2
= =
Nodal Analysis
Solves directly for node voltages.
Current sources are easy.
Voltage sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
Works best for circuits with few nodes.
Works for any circuit.
Advantages of Nodal Analysis
Mesh(Loop) Analysis
1) Identifying the Meshes
Mesh 2
1kO
1kO
1kO
V
1

+
-
V
2

+
-
Mesh 1
Mesh: A special kind of loop that doesnt contain any loops within it.
Mesh(Loop) Analysis
2) Assigning Mesh Currents
V
1

1kO
1kO
1kO
+
-
V
2

+
-
I
1
I
2

3) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms of the
loop currents.
-V
1
+ I
1
1kO + (I
1
- I
2
) 1kO = 0
(I
2
- I
1
) 1kO + I
2
1kO + V
2
= 0
I
1
( 1kO + 1kO) - I
2
1kO = V
1
- I
1
1kO + I
2
( 1kO + 1kO) = -V
2

For Mesh 1:
For Mesh 2:
Mesh(Loop) Analysis
3) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms of the
loop currents.


(
=
(
O + O O
O O + O
2
1
2
1
k 1 k 1 k 1
k 1 k 1 k 1
V
V
I
I
I
1
( 1kO + 1kO) - I
2
1kO = V
1
- I
1
1kO + I
2
( 1kO + 1kO) = -V
2

1kO
1kO
1kO
+
-
V
2

+
-
I
1
I
2

V
1


_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1 I
1

R
1
R
3
5O
5O

5O

5O
+
+
_
V
S1
I
S
.
E

o
-
R
2
R
6
R
5
R
4
V
S2
V
S3
V
S4
+
+
+
_
_
_
-
-
-
I
1

I
2

I
3

I
5

I
6

I
4

33 3 33 2 32 1 31
22 3 23 2 22 1 21
11 3 13 2 12 1 11
S m m m
S m m m
S m m m
V I R I R I R
V I R I R I R
V I R I R I R
= + +
= + +
= + +
1 2 6 2 6 1 1 2
2 2 3 5 5 2 2 3
6 5 4 5 6 3 4
m S S
m S S
m S
R R R R R I V V
R R R R R I V V
R R R R R I V
+ + +
( ( (
( ( (
+ + =
( ( (
( ( ( + +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0
0
0
4 4 3 6 1 3 5 3 2
2 2 1 2 5 3 2 3 3 2
2 2 1 2 6 3 1 1 1 1
= + + +
= + + + + +
= + + +
S m m m m m
m m S m m S m
m m S m m S m
V R I R I I R I I
R I I V R I I V R I
R I I V R I I V R I
Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
Mesh 3:
4 3 6 5 4 2 5 1 6
3 2 3 5 2 5 3 2 1 2
2 1 3 6 2 2 1 6 2 1
) (
) (
) (
S m m m
S S m m m
S S m m m
V I R R R I R I R
V V I R I R R R I R
V V I R I R I R R R
= + + + +
= + + + +
+ = + + +
I
m1
Mesh 1
I
m2

Mesh 2
I
m3

Mesh 3
33 3 33 2 32 1 31
22 3 23 2 22 1 21
11 3 13 2 12 1 11
S m m m
S m m m
S m m m
V I R I R I R
V I R I R I R
V I R I R I R
= + +
= + +
= + +
P2.4(P2.2)

_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1 I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
I
S
.
R
3
=80O
R
2
=0.4O
+
_
V
S
=14V
E
2
=12V
R
1
=0.5O

I
m1

I
m2

Mesh 1:
( )
( )
1 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2 2
12 0
12
S m m m
m m S
V I R I I R
R R I R I V
+ + + =
+ =
Mesh 2:
( )
( )
2 1 2 2 3
1 2 2 3 2
12 0
12
m m m
m m
I I R I R
I R R R I
+ + =
+ + =
1 2 2 1
2 2 3 2 2
12
12
m S
m
R R R I V
R R R I
+
( ( (
=
( ( (
+

-12

_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1
I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
2A

.
50O
+
_
40V
20O
30O
+I
What if there are current sources?
The current sources in this circuit will have whatever voltage is
necessary to make the current correct.
We cant use KVL around the loop because we dont know the
voltage.
P2.5 I = ?
P2.6 _
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
2O
+
_
7V
3O
1O
2A
+
2O
1O
-
-
-
-
+
-
V
I
m1

I
m2

( )
1 1 2
2 1
1 2
40 20 30 0
2A =
m m m
m m
m m
I I I
I I
I I I
+ + + =
=
= +
( ) ( )
2 1 2 2 3
1 2 3 0
m m m m m
I I I I I + + =
Mesh 1:
1 3
2
m m
I I =
Mesh 2:
2 3
7 2 1 0
m m
I I + + =
Super Mesh:
I
m2

Mesh 1
I
m3

Mesh 2 I
m1

Super Mesh
1kO
2kO
2kO
12V
+
-
4mA
2mA
I
0

I
1
I
2

I
3

The
Supermesh
surrounds
this source!
The
Supermesh
does not
include this
source!
1kO
2kO
2kO
12V
+
-
4mA
2mA
I
0

I
1
I
2

I
3

The 4mA current source sets I
2
:
I
2
= -4mA
The 2mA current source sets a
constraint on I
1
and I
3
:
I
1
- I
3
= 2mA
We have two equations and
three unknowns. Where is the
third equation?
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3 3 2 1 2
1 2 3
2 3 1
12 2k 1k 2k 0
2k 1k 2k 1k 2k 12V
4mA ; 0.8mA ; 1.2mA
I I I I I
I I I
I I I
+ O + O + O =
O O + O + O + O =
= = =
-

_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1
I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
+
2O
+
_
7V
3O
1O
2A
+
2O
1O
-
-
-
-
P2.6
+
-
V
I
m2

I
m3

2 3
1 3
-7V+ 2 1 0
2A
m m
m m
I I
I I
O+ O =
=
( ) ( )
1 2 3 2 3
-7V+ 1 3 1 0
m m m m m
I I I I I O+ O+ O=
Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
Node 3:
Mesh 1
Node 3
I
m1

Mesh 2
Mesh(Loop) Analysis
Dependent current source.
Current sources not shared by meshes.
We treat the dependent source as a
conventional source.
Then KVL on the remaining loop(s)
And express the controlling variable,
Vx, in terms of loop currents
Equations for meshes with current sources
mA I kI kI
8
11
= 2 + 3 = 8
3 1 3
] [
4
33
6
3
V kI V
O
= =
We are asked for Vo. We only need to solve for I 3 .
Replace and rearrange
mA I I
I I k V
kI V
x
x
4 2
) ( 4
2
2 1
2 1
1
= =
)
`
=
=
Advantages of Loop Analysis
Solves directly for some currents.
Voltage sources are easy.
Current sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
Works best for circuits with few loops.
Disadvantages of Loop Analysis
Some currents must be computed from loop currents.
Choosing the supermesh may be difficult.
Key Words:
Linearity
Superposition
Thevenins and Nortons theorems
Linearity
Linearity is a mathematical property of circuits that makes very
powerful analysis techniques possible.
Linearity leads to many useful properties of circuits:
Superposition: the effect of each source can be considered
separately.
Equivalent circuits: Any linear network can be represented by an
equivalent source and resistance (Thevenins and Nortons
theorems)
Linearity
Linearity leads to simple solutions:
Nodal analysis for linear circuits results in systems of linear
equations that can be solved by matrices
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
O
+
O O
O
+
O
+
O O
O
+
O
2
1
3
2
1
0
500
1
500
1
500
1
0
500
1
500
1
k 1
1
500
1
500
1
0
500
1
500
1
500
1
I
I
V
V
V
500O
500O
1kO
500O
500O
I
1

I
2

1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

Linearity
The relationship between current and voltage for a linear element
satisfies two properties:
Homogeneity
Additivity
*Real circuit elements are not linear, but can be approximated as linear
Linearity
Homogeneity:
Let v(t) be the voltage across an element with current i(t) flowing
through it.
In an element satisfying homogeneity, if the current is increased by
a factor of K, the voltage increases by a factor of K.
Additivity
Let v
1
(t) be the voltage across an element with current i
1
(t) flowing
through it, and let v
2
(t) be the voltage across an element with
current i
2
(t) flowing through it
In an element satisfying additivity, if the current is the sum of i
1
(t)
and i
2
(t), then the voltage is the sum of v
1
(t) and v
2
(t).
Example: Resistor: V = R I
If current is KI, then voltage is R KI = KV
If current is I
1
+ I
2
, then voltage is R(I
1
+ I
2
) = RI
1
+ RI
2
= V
1
+ V
2
Superposition is a direct consequence of linearity
It states that in any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources,
the current or voltage at any point in the circuit may be calculated as the
algebraic sum of the individual contributions of each source acting alone.
Superposition

_
U
S
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1 I
1 I
1 I
1

R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
I
S
.
R
3
=80O
R
2
=0.4O
+
_
V
S
=14V
E
2
=12V
R
1
=0.5O

I
2

I

( )
2
3 1 3 2 2 1
3 1
3 2 3 1 2 1
3
2
2 2
E
R R R R R R
R R
V
R R R R R R
R
I
I
S
I

' ' '
+ +
+
+ +
=
Superposition
How to Apply Superposition?
To find the contribution due to an individual independent source, zero
out the other independent sources in the circuit.
Voltage source short circuit.
Current source open circuit.
Solve the resulting circuit using your favorite techniques.
Nodal analysis
Loop analysis
Superposition
For the above case:
Zero out Vs, we have : Zero out E2, we have :
R1 R3
E2
R2
I2
R1 R3
E2
R2
I2
I
+
_
Vs
( )
( )
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 2 2 3 1 3
2 1 3
1 3
2 1 3
2
1 2 2 3 1 3
/ /
/ /
R R
R R
R R
R R R R R R
R R R
R R
E R R
I
R R R R R R
=
+
+ +
+ =
+
+
'' =
+ +
( )
( )
2 3
2 3
2 3
1 2 2 3 1 3
1 1 3
2 3
2 3
1 2 2 3 1 3
3 3
2
2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
/ /
/ /

s
s
R R
R R
R R
R R R R R R
R R R
R R
V R R
I
R R R R R R
R V R
I I
R R R R R R R R
=
+
+ +
+ =
+
+
=
+ +
' = =
+ + +
Superposition
P2.7
2kO 1kO
2kO
12V
+ -
I
0

2mA
4mA
Superposition
P2.7
2kO 1kO
2kO
I
o

2mA
( )
0 2 1
1
2 A
I I I
I m
=
=
KVL for mesh 2:
( )
2 1 2
2 1
1k 2k 0
1 2
A
3 3
I I I
I I m
O+ O =
= =
( )
0 2 1
2
2
3
4
A
3
I I I
m
| |
' = = +
|
\ .
=
I
1

I
2

Mesh 2
Superposition
P2.7
2kO 1kO
2kO
I
0

4mA
I
1

I
2

KVL for mesh 2:
( )
2 2 1 2
1k 0 2k 0 I I I I O+ + O =
2
0
0
o
I
I
=
''
=
Mesh 2
0 2
I I
''
=
Superposition
P2.7
2kO 1kO
2kO
12V
+ -
I
0

I
2

Mesh 2
2 o
I I
'''
=
KVL for mesh 2:
2 2
1k 12V 2k 0 I I O + O =
2
12
4 A
1k 2k
I m = =
O+ O
4 A
o
I m
'''
=
Superposition
P2.7
I
0
= I
0
+I
0
+

I
0
= -16/3 mA
2kO 1kO
2kO
12V
+ -
I
0

2mA
4mA
2kO 1kO
2kO
12V
+ -
I
0

2mA
4mA
Thevenins theorem
Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and
resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single
voltage source and a single resistor
Thevenins theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily
complicated networks with simple networks for purposes of analysis
Thevenins theorem
Circuit with independent sources
R
Th

V
oc

+
-
Thevenin equivalent circuit
Independent Sources
Thevenins theorem
No Independent Sources
Circuit without independent sources
R
Th

Thevenin equivalent circuit
Nortons theorem
Very similar to Thevenins theorem
It simply states that any circuit with sources (dependent and/or
independent) and resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
containing a single current source and a single resistor
Nortons theorem
Norton Equivalent: Independent Sources
Circuit with one or more
independent sources
R
Th

Norton equivalent circuit
I
sc

Nortons theorem
Norton Equivalent: No Independent Sources
Circuit without independent sources
R
Th

Norton equivalent circuit
Motivation of applying the Thevenins theorem and Nortons theorem:
Sometimes, in a complex circuit, we are only interested in working out the voltage
/current or power being consumed by a single load (resistor);
We can then treat the rest of the circuit (excluding the interested load) as a voltage
(current) source concatenated with a source resistor;
Simplify our analysis.
The Thevenins theorem:
Given a linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks of A and B
connected by two wires. Define V
oc
as the open-circuit voltage which appears
across the terminals of A when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltage in B
will remain unchanged, if we replace all the independent current or voltage source
in A by an independent voltage source which is in series with a resistor (RTh).
The Nortons Theorem:
Given a linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks of A and B
connected by two wires. Define isc as the short-circuit current which appears across
the terminals of A when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltage in B will
remain unchanged, if we replace all the independent current or voltage source in A
by an independent current source isc which is in parallel with a resistor (RN).

Equivalent transform between a Thevenin equivalent circuit and a Norton
equivalent circuit

L
R
TH
R
+
L
V
S
v
S
i
N
R
L
R
+
L
v
L
v
L
v
Thevenin equivalent
Norton equivalent
L
L S
L TH
R
v v
R R
=
+
TH N
R R =
L
v
L
v
If and
=
L
TH L
N
s L
R
R R
R
i V
(
+
=
TH s N s s
R i R i v = =
N
V
L
V
L
V
L
Therefore, for a source transform:
Thevenin Norton:
Norton Thevenin :
, /
N TH s s TH
R R i v R = =
,
TH N s s N
R R v i R = =
Example 45 (P88) Find a Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit for the following
circuit excluding
L
R
12V
3O 7O
6O
L
R
A B
4A
3O
6O
7O
L
R
T N
4A 2O
7O
L
R
8V
2O 7O
L
R
N T
8V
9O
L
R
0.889A
9O
L
R
Thevenin
equivalent
Norton
equivalent
Application of Thevenins theorem when there are only independent sources.
step : 1) Determine of two connection points between network A and network B.
2) Determine of two connection points by replacing the voltage source by a short-
circuit or the current source by a open-circuit.

Similarly, for Nortons Theorem
steps : 1) Determine between the two connection points between network A and B.
2) Determine by two connection points by replacing the voltage source by a short-
circuit or the current source by an open circuit.

oc
v
TH
R
N
R
Test the above case?
SC
i
Practice 4.6 (P90)
9V
4O
4O
5O
2O
6O
2
? I
O
=
oc
v
4O
4O
5O
6O
9V
9V
4 2.571V
4 4 6
S OC
V V = = O =
O + O + O
4O
5O
10O
TH
R
1
1 1 20
( ) 5 5 7.857
10 4 7
TH
R

= + + O = O+ O = O
O O
Thevenin equivalent :

2.521V
7.857O
2O
2
I
O
2
2.571V
260.8 A
7.857 2
I m
O
= =
O + O
When there are multiple independent source, we shall use superposition .
Example 4.7 (P91) Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent for the network excluding the
resistor.

1kO
2mA 1kO
3kO 2kO
4V
To determine ,
when only 4v voltage source is functioning.

oc
v
'
oc
v
'
4
oc
v V =
5KO
4V
When only 2mA current source is functioning :

2mA
2kO
3kO
oc
v
N T
''
oc
v
''
4
oc
v V =
4V
5kO
Therefore,
' ''
4V 4V 8V
c oc oc oc
v v v v = = + = + =
To determine

TH
R
5
TH
R k = O
5kO
Thevenin equivalent:
8
S
V V =
5
TH
k R O =
1kO
5
N TH
R R k = = O
/ 1.6
S s TH
i v R mA = =
Norton equivalent
1.6
s
v mA =
5
N
R k = O
1kO
Try to look into this problem from the Norton approach.
(Figure out the Norton equivalent circuit first)

When there are both independent source and dependent source.
Dependent source cannot be zero out as far as its controlling variable is not zero.
Similar as before,
But we cannot determine directly, however, we can use
s oc
v v =
( )
TH N
R R
( ) /
TH N oc sc
R R v i =
Example 4.8 (P92) Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the following circuit
x
v
+
4000
x
v
2kO 3kO
4V
To determine
since ,applying KVL to the supermesh:
oc
v
oc x
v v =
4V ( ) 2 3 0 0
4000
X
x
V
k k v + O+ O + =
8V
s oc x
v v v = = =

To determine
sc
i
0
4000
x
v
= 0
x
v =
4V
2kO 3kO
Therefore its Thevenin equivalent is:
8
s
v V =
10
TH
R k = O
mA 8 . 0
k 5
V 4
=
O
=
SC
i
O = = = k 10
mA 8 . 0
V 8
/
SC OC TH
i v R
When there are only dependent sources:
V
OC
= 0
R
TH
can be determined by implying a test (imaginary) voltage across the two
terminals.

To determine RTh, imagine an independent
current source xA. as :
3
2
i
1.5i
3
2
i
1.5i v
xA
Open circuit :
2
0 , 1.5 0 , 0
2 3
OC
i i V
O
= = =
O+ O
Example 4.9 (p93)
Apply KCL:
Giving :
0.6
x
v
R
Th
=
i = -xA,
0 = ) ( +
2
+
3
) ( 5 . 1
x
v v x
-
- -
-
v = 0.6x V
R
Th
= 0.6
Thevenins theorem
Circuits with independent sources
Compute the open circuit voltage, this is Voc
Compute the Thevenin resistance (set the sources to zero short
circuit the voltage sources, open circuit the current sources), and
find the equivalent resistance, this is R
Th
Circuits with independent and dependent sources:
Compute the open circuit voltage
Compute the short circuit current
The ratio of the two is R
Th
Circuits with dependent sources only*
V
oc
is simply 0
R
Th
is found by applying an independent voltage source (V volts)
to the terminals and finding voltage/current ratio
* Not required by this course.
Nortons theorem
Circuits with independent sources, w/o dependent sources
Compute the short circuit current, this is I
sc
Compute the Thevenin resistance (set the sources to zero short
circuit the voltage sources, open circuit the current sources), and
find the equivalent resistance, this is R
N
Circuits with both independent and dependent sources
Find V
oc
and I
sc
Compute R
N
= V
oc
/ I
sc
Circuits w/o independent sources*
Apply a test voltage (current) source
Find resulting current (voltage)
Compute R
N

Maximum power transfer
+
-
SOURCE
(LOAD)
R
TH
V
TH
R
L
+
L
V
TH
L TH
L
L
L
L
L
V
R R
R
V
R
V
P
+
= = ;
2
( )
2
2 TH
L TH
L
L
V
R R
R
P
+
=
For every choice of R
L
we have a different power.
How do we find the maximum value?
Consider P
L
as a function of R
L
and find the
maximum of such function
( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ +
=
4
2
2
2
L TH
L TH L L TH
TH
L
L
R R
R R R R R
V
dR
dP
= + 0 2
L L TH
R R R
TH L
R R =
*
The maximum power transfer theorem
The load that maximizes the power transfer for a circuit is equal to the Thevenin equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
The value of the maximum power that can be transferred is
TH
TH
L
R
V
P
4
(max)
2
=
}
Analysis methods Review
}
Any circuits
linear circuits
KVL, KCL, I V
Combination rules
Node method
Mesh method
Superposition
Thvenin
Norton

Basic Analysis Method Circuit

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Basic Analysis Method Circuit

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Ch2 Basic Analysis Methods to Circuits

2.1 Equivalent Circuits

The left hand side of the equation:

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