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0 COOLING TOWER
Mechanical draft
Lrge fans to force or suck air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air maximising heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical draft towers depend upon their fan diameter and speed of operation
Tower Materials
Wooden components included the frame, casing, louvers, fill, and often the cold water basin Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber, and concrete
enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life
Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. Plastics also find wide use as nozzle materials Aluminum, glass fiber, and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are fabricated from galvanized, aluminum, or molded glass fiber reinforced plastic
Capacity
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to understand cooling tower performance. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9oC range might be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5oC range.
Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving Range oC = Heat Load in kcals/hour Water Circulation Rate in LPH
Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower might be specified to cool 4540 m3/hr from 48.9oC to 32.2oC at 26.7oC wet bulb temperature.
Cold Water Temperature 32.2oC Wet Bulb Temperature (26.7oC) = Approach (5.5oC)
As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower due to increased size.
Usually a 2.8oC approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest water temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range, approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower, approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of lesser importance.
Heat Load
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served
In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable
The size and cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load
Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant, process, or system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a heat load is applied
The temperature selected is generally close to the average maximum wet bulb for the summer months
Approach oC Hot Water oC Cold Water oC No. of Cells Length of Cells Mts. Overall Length Mts. No. of Fans Fan Diameter Mts. Total Fan kW
Flow m3/hr 3632 4086 4563 5039 5516 6060.9 7150.5 8736 11590 13620 16276
Approach o C 2.78 3.33 3.89 4.45 5.00 5.56 6.67 8.33 11.1 13.9 16.7
Cold Water o C 29.40 29.95 30.51 31.07 31.62 32.18 33.29 35.00 37.80 40.56 43.33
Hot Water o C 46.11 46.67 47.22 47.78 48.33 48.89 50.00 51.67 54.45 57.22 60.00
Million kCal/hr 60.691 68.318 76.25 84.05 92.17 101.28 119.48 145.63 191.64 226.91 271.32
Lighting
Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features Lamps:Lamp is equipment, which produces light.
Incandescent lamps: Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of electric current through it. The principle parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap. Reflector lamps: Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or elliptical outer bulb.
Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or more lamps. The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves. principles used in optical luminaire are reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows: Ballast: A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps. In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting. Ignitors: These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.
Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of surface containing the point, by the area of that element. The illuminance provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the appearance of the space.
Lux (lx): This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lux,
uniformly distributed over a surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Floor
Lighting Quality
Illumination level. Uniformity Absence of glare. Colour rendering index (CRI).
Fluorescent Lamps Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) High pressure mercury (HPMV) Halogen lamps
46-60 40-70
50 60
44-57
50
Fair
18-24
20
Excellent
20004000
High pressure sodium (HPSV) SON Low pressure sodium (LPSV) SOX
67-121
90
Fair
600012000 600012000
101-175
150
Poor
Illuminance a range of illuminances is recommended for each type of interior or ranges: activity intended of a single value of illuminance. Each range consists of three successive steps of the recommended scale of illuminances. For working interiors the middle value (R) of each range represents the recommended service illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors mentioned
Lighting Controls
On/off flip switches Timer control & auto timed switch off Presence detection Luminary grouping / Group Switching Day light linking, blinders, corrugated roof sheets Dimmers , Lighting voltage controllers Photo sensors
Population Numbers
8. 9.
Clean North roof glass, translucent sheet and luminaries regularly Separate lighting Transformer
To isolate from power feeder, To avoid voltage fluctuation problem
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal working plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per watt per square metre (lux/W/m) Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of power consumed by the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear losses. This is a more meaningful measure for those lamps that require control gear. Unit: lumens per circuit watt (lm/W) Installed Power Density. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of average maintained illuminance on a horizontal working plane with general lighting of an interior. Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux (W/m/100
100
Installed load efficacy (lux/W/m)
Average maintained illuminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a defined area.
Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects. To determine the CRI of a lamp, the color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured with special equipment under a reference light source with the same correlated color temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light source, its CRI is 100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height, which is the height of the lighting fittings above the horizontal working plane. The working plane is usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in offices and at 0.85m above floor level in manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or feet as long as the same unit is used throughout. Ascertain the minimum number of measurement points from Table
For example, the dimensions of an interior are: Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaires above working plane (Hm) = 2m 9 x 5 = 1.93 2(9 + 5) From Table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16 Calculate RI =
As it is not possible to approximate a square array of 16 points within such a rectangle it is necessary to increase the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3. These should be spaced as shown below:
Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows along the length of the interior = 9 6 = 1.5m and the distance of the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 2 = 0.75m. Similarly the distance between points across the width of the interior = 5 3 = 1.67m with half this value, 0.83m, between the 'end' points and the walls.
If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the lighting fittings, large errors are possible and the number of measurement points should be increased to avoid such an occurrence.
Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load Efficacy Ratio of a General Lighting Installation in an Interior
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 Measure the floor area of the interior: Calculate the Room Index RI Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts: Calculate Watts per square metre, Value of step 3 value of step 1 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance by using lux meter, Eav. Maintained Divide 5 by 4 to calculate lux per watt per square Metre Obtain target Lux/W/m lux for type of the type of interior/application and RI (2): Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 7 ). = --------------------
45 Area = -------------------m
W/m =
------------
Area = 45 m 45 RI = 1.93
Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts: Calculate Watts per square metre, 3 1 :
STEP 4 STEP 5
W/m =
22
Ascertain the average maintained illuminance, Eav. Maintained (average lux levels measured Eav.maint. = 700 at 18 points) STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate the actual lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m = 31.8 STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m lux for type of the Target Lux/W/m = 46 type of interior/application and RI (2):(Refer Table 10.2) STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 7 ILER = 0.7 ). Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system. Annual energy wastage = (1 ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours = (1 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days = 712 kWh/annum
Table 10.4 IES Illuminance Categories and Values - For Generic Indoor Activities ACTIVITY Public spaces with dark surroundings Simple orientation for short temporary visits Working spaces where visual tasks are only occasionally performed Performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large size Performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small size Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small size Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small size over a prolonged period Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely low contrast CATEGORY A B C D E F G H I LUX 20-30-50 50-75-100 100-150-200 200-300-500 500-750-1000 1000-1500-2000 2000-3000-5000 5000-7500-10000 10000-1500020000 FOOTCANDLES 2-3-5 5-7.5-10 10-15-20 20-30-50 50-75-100 100-150-200 200-300-500 500-750-1000 1000-1500-2000
A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e. lobby space) D-F for localized tasks G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks