Composite materials and structures

Poissons ratio
In general terms Poissons ratio, ij, is defined as the ratio of the negative of the normal strain in the direction j to the normal strain in the direction i, when the only normal load applied is in direction i.

Elastic constants for various epoxy matrix composites. (Fibres along x-axis)
Ma teri al Gra phi te Bor on Gla ss Kev lar Exx Gpa 181 Eyy GPa 10.3 Gxy GPa 7.17 xy yx Vf Sp. gravi ty. 1.6

0.28

.015 94

0.7

204

18.5

5.59

0.23

0.5

2.0

38.6

8.27

4.14

0.26

0.45

1.8

76

5.5

2.3

0.34

0.6

1.46

Lamina stress strain relations referred to arbitrary axes or Hookes law for a 2-D angle lamina

A lamina is a thin layer of a composite material which is generally of a thickness of the order of o.125 mm. A laminate is constructed by stacking a large number of such laminae in various orientations in the direction of the thickness. Structures are made of these laminates. These structures are subjected to various loads such as stretching, bending, twisting etc. The design and analysis of such laminated structures demand the knowledge of the stresses and strains in the laminate.

The building blocks of a laminate are single lamina. Understanding the mechanical analysis of a lamina precedes that of a laminate. A lamina is not a homogeneous isotropic material, even though it is made up of homogeneous isotropic materials such as fibres and matrix..

E.g., the stiffness of the lamina varies from point to point, depending on whether the point is on the fibre, the matrix, or the fibre-matrix interface. This makes the mechanical analysis of the lamina very complicated. For this reason the macromechanical analysis of a lamina is based on average properties and considering the lamina to be homogeneous. Micro mechanics deals with the methods to find the average properties

As already mentioned, the laminates for the construction of structural elements are generally made by stacking the laminae in various orientations as per the design requirements. Hence to analyze a structure, the properties are required along arbitrary directions. Now, that the properties of the lamina are known in the directions along and transverse to the fibres, we need to workout the stress strain relations referred to arbitrary directions.

The co-ordinate system used y to illustrate an angle lamina 2 1 is shown in the figure. The axes in the 1-2 direction is x called the local axes or material axes or the natural axes. The direction 1 is parallel to the fibres and direction 2 is perpendicular to the fibres. Direction 1 is called as longitudinal or l direction and 2 as transverse or t direction. The x-y co-ordinate system are called the global axes or off axes. The angle between the two is angle .

The stress strain relationship in the 1-2 coordinate system or the local co-ordinate system has already been established. The stress strain relationship for the x-y co-ordinate system or the global co-ordinate system need to be developed now.

The global and local stresses are related to each other through the angle , as shown below: x y xy -1 1 = T 2 12 ,

where, T is the transformation matrix given by, C2 S2 2SC -1 C2 S2 -2SC S2 C2 -2SC and T = S2 C2 2SC -SC SC C2-S2 SC -SC C2-S2

T =

where C=cos and S= sin, C2-S2 = cos2

Using the stress strain equation for the local axes, that 1 1 2 = Q 2 12 12 we can write the relation for global axes as, x y xy -1 = T Q 1 2 12

The global and local strains are related through the transformation matrix, 1 2 = (12)/2 x y (xy)/2

note: x =u/x, y =v/y xy=(1/2)[u/y + v/x] xy= [u/y + v/x]

The stress strain relation in the local coordinate system can be written as, 1 2 12 Q11 Q12 0 Q12 Q22 0 0 0 2Q66 1 2 12/2

where, Q11= E1/ (1-1221) Q12 = 12 E2/ (1-1221) = 21 E1/(1-1221) Q22 = E2/(1-1221) Q66 =G12

Then the stress- strain relation in the global coordinates can be written as,

{}global = x y xy

-1 [T] [Q][T]{}

global

x = [T]-1[Q][T] y xy/2

Where,

Q11 Q12 0 Q = Q12 Q22 0 0 0 2Q66

Whereby, x Q11 Q12 2Q16 y = Q12 Q22 2Q26 xy Q16 Q26 2Q66 x y xy/2

Q11 Q12 Q16 Q12 Q22 Q26 Q16 Q26 Q66

x y xy

Where Qij are called the elements of transformed reduced stiffness matrix Q and are given by,

Q11 = Q11c4 + Q22S4 + 2(Q12+2Q66)s2 c2 Q12 = (Q11+Q22-4Q66)s2 c2+Q12(c4 +s4)

Q22 = Q11 s4 +Q22 c4+2(Q12+2Q66)s2 c2

Q16 = (Q11-Q12-2Q66)c3s - (Q22-Q12-2Q66)s3c Q26 = (Q11-Q12-2Q66)cs3-(Q22-Q12-2Q66)c3s

Q66 = (Q11+Q22-2Q12-2Q66)s2c2+Q66(s4+c4)

Note that there are six elements in the [Q] matrix. However, they are functions of four stiffness elements Q11, Q12, Q22, Q66 and the angle of the lamina .

Inverting the above equation gives, x y = xy S11 S12 S16 S12 S22 S26 S16 S26 S66 x y xy

Where Sij are the elements of the transformed reduced compliance matrix and are given by,

S11 = s11c4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22s4 s12 = s12(s4+c4)+s11+s22-s66)s2c2 s22 = s11s4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22c4

s16 = (2s11-2s12-s66)sc3-(2s22-s12-s66)s3c s26 = (2s11-2s12-s66)s3c-(2s22-2s12-s66)sc3 s66 = 2(2s11-2s22-4s12-s66)s2c2+s66(s4+c4)

We know that,
s11 = 1/E1 s22=1/E2

s12=-12/E1 = -21/E2

s66= 1/G66=1/G12

From these equations for the stressstrain relation for a unidirectional lamina, it may be noted that when they are loaded in the material axes directions, there is no coupling between the normal and shearing terms of strains and stresses.

But, for loading other than the natural axes, there is coupling between the normal and shearing terms of stresses and strains. If normal stresses only are applied to an angle lamina, the shear strains are non-zero and if shearing stresses only are applied to an angle lamina the normal stresses are non-zero. ----------00000000-----------

Experimental characterisation of a Lamina.

In order to analyze a composite structure, the analyst needs five intrinsic macroscopic material properties, El, Et, lt ( l and t being longitudinal transverse directions to the fibre axis) of a unidirectional lamina or ply. In addition we need at least 3 fundamental strengths of the lamina. (This assumes that the tensile and compressive strengths are equal. If not we need five strengths.)

1. X- axial or longitudinal strength 2.Y- transverse strength. 3. S- shear strength. These quantities are the ultimate stresses of a lamina and have units of force per unit area.

To evaluate these values, four experiments need to be conducted. Three tension tests and one torsion test , as shown in the figures below:
2 P

P
fig -1

P
fig-2 2 P T T fig-4

P
fig-3

1. Experiment-1. Figure. I shows a tensile specimen with fibres along the loading direction. Strain gauges are fixed on the specimen to measure the strain along and across the fibre directions. (In order to average any tendency to bending due to the grips of the testing machine back to back biaxial strain gauges should be used on both sides of the specimen.)

Since the fibre is oriented along the loading direction, the l direction and 1 direction coincide and =0.
This experiment could be used to determine the elastic constants El (or E1) and lt (or 12) and the fundamental strength, X. By measuring the load P, the cross sectional area A, and the strains l (or 1) and t (or 2). The youngs modulus, El (or E1) is given by, El or E1 = P/(Al) lt (or 12) = - (t/l) and X= Pultimate/A.

2. Experiment-2. Figure-2 shows a tensile specimen with fibres along the transverse direction to the loading direction. Strain gauges are fixed as in experiment -1. This experiment can give the youngs modlus in the transverse direction to the fibre or Et (or E2), the Poisson's ratio tl, (or 21) and the strength in the transverse direction Y.

As in experiment-1, we have, Et (or E2) = P/(At) tl (or 21) = -(1/2) Strength in the lateral direction of the composite material, Y = Pultimate/A A check on the accuracy of the measurement can be made at this point, from the equations that, El tl = Et lt

3. Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, Glt or G12. Figure-3 shows a tension specimen in which the fibres are oriented at an angle with the loading direction. If the test is conducted such that =45 and the load and strain are measured, then Ex=P/Ax and Glt can be computed using the formula, (1/Ex) = (1/El +1/Et +1/Glt 2lt/El)/4 or

(1/Glt) = 4/Ex-1/El-1/Et+2lt/El .

Proof: When only x is applied x is given by, x = s11 x and Ex= (x / x ) = s11

where, s11 = s11c4+(2s12+s66)s2c2 + s22s4

When = 45, cos =sin =(1/2)1/2, then, s11= ()[1/E1-212/E1+1/G12+1/E2] or, 1/Ex = ()[(1/E1)-2(12/E1)+(1/G12)+(1/E2)]

4. Shear strength, S. To determine the shear strength we do the fourth test. A tube is constructed by circumferential winding to only a few laminae thickness; it can be considered so thin that the stresses can be asssumed to be constant through the thickness. For torsional load, the state of stress at any point in the material will be pure shear. If T is the torsional load and r and t are the tubes mean radius and thickness respectively, then , shear strength, S = ultimate = Tultimate/2r2t.

property El Et lt Glt

Boron/epoxy MPa 280x103 28x103 0.25 10.5x103

Glass/epoxy MPa 56x103 18.9x103 0.25 8.75x103

X Y
S

1050 28
56

1050 28
56

Engineering constants of an angle lamina: The engineering constants for a unidirectional lamina were evaluated earlier. Using similar techniques , we can evaluate the engineering constants of an angle ply or lamina, Ex, Ey, xy etc in terms of the transformed stiffness or compliance matrices. We know the relation between strain and stress for an angle lamina, as, 2 y 1 x S11 S12 S16 x x y = S12 S22 S26 y angle ply or angle lamina xy S16 S26 S66 xy

1. To find the youngs modulus in the direction x: Apply a single stress in the direction x. ie, x = 0.0 , y = xy= 0.0, we get,

x y = xy

S11 S12 S16 S12 S22 S26 S16 S26 S66

x 0 0

then,x= s11x , y = s12x and xy = s16x the youngs modulus in the direction x is defined as, Ex= x/x = (1/ s11) xy = -(y/x) = -(s12/ s11)

Shear coupling: In an angular lamina, unlike unidirectional lamina, interaction occurs also between the shear strain and the normal stresses. This is called the shear coupling. The shear coupling term which relates the normal stress in the xdirection to the shear strain is denoted by mx and is defined as, (1/mx) = -(x/E1xy) = - (1/ s16E1) Note that mx is a non-dimensional parameter like Poissons ratio.

2. Youngs modulus in the y-direction:

Now apply the load in the y-direction alone. y (i.e.), x=0 y = 0 xy=0 we can see that , Ey=1/s22, yx = - s12/s22
1/my =-1/(s26E1
y

3. Reciprocal relationship: from the above we can see the relation between Ey, xy, and yx, as, ( xy/ Ex ) = (yx/ Ey) which is known as the reciprocal relationship of the Poissons ratio.

4. Shear modulus:
By applying stresses, x=y=0.0, and xy = 0.0, as shown in figure, it is seen that, 1/mx = -1/s16E1 1/my = -1/s26E1 y xy Gxy = 1/ s66 x xy

Hence the stress strain equation of an angle lamina can also be written in terms of the engineering constants of an angle lamina, as,

x 1/Ex -xy/Ex - mx/E1 y = -xy/Ex 1/Ey - my/E1 xy -mx/E1 -my/E1 1/Gxy

x y xy

The above six engineering consants of an angle ply can also be written in terms of the engineering constants of a unidirectional ply, as,

(1/Ex) = S11 =s11c4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22S4

= c4/E1 +(1/G12- 212/E1)s2c2 +s4/E2

xy = -Exs12 =-Ex s12(s4+c4) +(s11+s22-s66)s2c2 +s22s4

=Ex (12/E1)(s4+c4)-((1/E1)+(1/E2)-1/G12)s2c2 1/Ey = s22= s11s4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22c4

=s4/E1+(-2 12/E1 +1/G12)s2c2 +c4/E2

1/Gxy = s66 = 2(2s11+2s22-4s12-s66)s2c2 +s66(s4+c4) = 2(2/E1+2/E2+412/E1-1/G12)s2c2 +1/G12( s4+c4) mx = -s16E1 = -E1((2s11-2s12-s66 )sc3-(2s22-2s12-s66)s3c =E1(1/G12-2/E1-12/E1-1/G12)s3c

my = -s26E1 = -E1(2s11-2s12-s66)s3c-(2s22-2s12-s66)sc3) = -E1((1/G12-2/E1-212/E1)s3c +(2/E2+212/E1-1/G12) sc3)

Example: Find the following for a 60 angle lamina of a graphite/epoxy, given : E1 =181 Gpa, E2= 10.3GPa 12=0.28, G12=7.17GPa 1. Transformed compliance matrix 2. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix 3. Engineering constants, Ex, Ey,Gxy, mx, my,& xy. if the applied stress is x=2.0 Mpa, y=-3.0MPa, xy= 4MPa, calculate, 4. global strains, 5. local strains, 6. local stresses, 7.Principal stresses, 8. maximum shear stress, 9. Principal strains

Q11 = E1/(1-12 21) Q12 = 12 E2/ (1- 12 21) = 21 E1 / (1- 12 21) Q22 = E2/ (1-12 21) Q66 = G66 =G12