TRANSMISSION LINES

WHAT IS TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS AT MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES SINCE THESE LINES ARE
USED TO CONNECT ANTENNA TO RECEIVER / TRANSMITTED, PAs, etc

CONVENTIONAL CIRCUIT THEORY USES LUMPED CONSTANTS TO REPRESENT
CAPACITANCES AND INDUCTANCES

THIS IS OK FOR LOW FREQUENCIES. AS FREQ INCREASES TWOEFFECTS BECOME
PROMINENT
INDUCTANCES OVER SHORT LENGTHS BECOME SIGNIFICANT
CAPACITANCE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS BECOME SIGNIFICANT

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT TRAVEL AS WAVES ALONG THE TRANSMISSION LINE
AND INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE EFFECTS COMBINE AT EACH POINT ALONG
THE CONDUCTOR

CONSEQUENTLY, IMPENDANCE OFFERED BY A SHORT LENGTH OF CONDUCTOR IS
SIGNIFICANT

HENCE DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT THEORY IS EMPLOYED TO ANALYZE TRANSMISSION
LINES @ MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
NECESSITY FOR CHANGED APPROACH
~
Rz
Lz
Gz
Cz
Rs
ELEMENTARY SECTION OF Txn LINE

LINE LENGTH IS LARGE COMPARED TO IN THE DIRECTION OF +ve Z AXIS

EACH SECTION HAS INFINITESIMALLY INCREMENTAL IMPEDANCE Z

AT THE START IS THE GENERATOR OR SOURCE

AT THE END IS THE LOAD Z
L



~
~

~

~

~

~

~

~

~

Z
L

A B
v(z,t) v(z+z,t)
i(z,t)
i(z+z,t)
Rz Rz Lz Lz
Gz Cz
Cz
DERIVATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS

APPLY KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW IN THE INNER LOOP

~
~

~

~

~

~

~

~

~

R
L

A B
v(z,t) v(z+z,t)
i(z,t)
i(z+z,t)
Rz Rz Lz Lz
Gz Cz
Cz
) , ( ) , (
) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , (
) (
) , (
) (
0
)] , ( [ ) , ( ) , ( ) ( ) , (
t z i
t
L t z Ri
z
t z v
z
t z v t z z v
t z i
t z
z L
t z i
z
z R
t z z v t z i
t
L t z i z R t z v
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ =
A
A +
+
A
A
+
A
A
=
A + + + A =
DERIVATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS

APPLY KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW AT POINT B, WE GET,

~
~

~

~

~

~

~

~

~

R
L

A B
v(z,t) v(z+z,t)
i(z,t)
i(z+z,t)
Rz Rz Lz Lz
Gz Cz
Cz
) , ( ] ), [( )} )( , ( ) , ( {[ ) (
)} )( , ( ) , ( ){[ ( 0
] ), [( ] ), [( ) ( ] ), [( ) ( ) , (
t z i t z z i z t z v
z
t z v
t
z C
z t z v
z
t z v z G
t z z i t z z v
t
z C t z z v z G t z i
A + + A + A
+ A + A =
A + + A + A + A + A =
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
DERIVATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS

DIVIDING BOTH SIDES BY z





t
v
C Gv
z
t z i
z t z v
z t
t z v
t
C z t z v
z
G t z Gv
z
t z i
z
t z i t z z i
z
z t z v
z
t z v
t
z C
z
z t z v
z
t z v z G
o
o
o
o
o
o o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ =
A
c
+ + A + =
A
A +
+
A
A + A
+
A
A + A
=
) , (
)} )( , ( { ) , ( ) )( , ( ) , (
) , (
) , ( ) , (
) (
)} )( , ( ) , ( {[ ) (
) (
)} )( , ( ) , ( ){[ (
0
may be neglected
may be neglected
DERIVATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS
THUS WE HAVE

AND

DIFFERENTIATE wrt z DIFFERENTIATE wrt t


2
2
) (
t
v
C
t
v
G
t
z
i
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
) (
} { } {
) (
t
v
LC
t
v
LG RC RGv
z
v
t
v
LC
t
v
LG
t
v
RC RGv
z
v
t
v
C Gv
t
L
t
v
C Gv R
z
t i
L
z
i
R
z
v
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o o o
o
o
o
o
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + =
+ =
t
v
C Gv
z
t z i
o
o
o
o
+ =
) , (
t
i
L Ri
z
v
o
o
o
o
+ =
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
2
2
2
2
) (
t
v
LC
t
v
LG RC RGv
z
v
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ + + =








2
2
2
2
) (
t
i
LC
t
i
LG RC RGi
z
i
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ + + =
SIMPLIFICATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS
We have

AND


SUBSTITUTING FOR i & v IN BOTH EQUATIONS, WE GET









where, Impedance Z = R+jL
and Admittance Y = G+jC


t
v
C Gv
z
t z i
o
o
o
o
+ =
) , (
t
i
L Ri
z
v
o
o
o
o
+ =
ZI I L j R
dz
dV
LIe j RIe
dz
dV
e
t
Ie
L RIe
z
Ve
t j t j t j
t j
t j
t j
= + =
+ =
+ =
) (
) (
e
e
o
o
o
o
e e e
e
e
e
YV I C j G
dz
dI
CVe j GVe
dz
dI
e
t
Ve
C GVe
z
Ie
t j t j t j
t j
t j
t j
= + =
+ =
+ =
) (
) (
e
e
o
o
o
o
e e e
e
e
e
SIMPLIFICATION OF Txn LINE EQUATIONS
We have, Impedance Z = R+jL and Admittance Y = G+jC and Txn Line eqn given by



SUBSTITUTING v = Ve
jt
IN THE ABOVE EQUATION, WE GET










where,

2
2
2
2
) (
t
v
LC
t
v
LG RC RGv
z
v
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ + + =
I
z
I
SIMILARLY V
z
V
OR
C j G L j R note V LG RC j LC RG
LCVe Ve LG RC j RGVe
dt
V d
e
t
Ve
LC
t
Ve
LG RC RGVe
z
Ve
t j t j t j t j
t j t j
t j
t j
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
,
) )( ( )] ( ) [(
) (
) (

o
o

o
o
e e e e
e e
o
o
o
o
o
o
e e e e
e e
e
e
= =
= + + + + =
+ + =
+ + + =
ZY =
INTERPRETATION OF Txn LINE EQN
INSTANTANEOUS v & i VARY BOTH IN TIME AND IN SPACE

THEY CAN BE EXPRESSED AS




WHERE V(z) & I(z) ARE PHASORS WITH COMPLEX MAGNITUDE AND PHASE COMPONENTS

THEY CAN BE EXPRESSED AS






is attenuation constant and is measured in Nepers/unit length
phase constant and is measured in Radians/unit length
} ) ( Re{ ) , (
} ) ( Re{ ) , (
)
)
t j
t j
e z I t z i
e z V t z v
e
e
=
=
| o


j
e I e I z I
e V e V z V
z z
z z
+ =
+ =
+ =

+
) (
) (
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
One solutions for the transmission line equations is as given below














Z
0
is the characteristic impedance of the medium given by
z z
e V e V z V

+
+ = ) (
Wave
travelling
in ve z
direction
Wave
travelling
in +ve z
direction
( )
( )
( )
z z
z z
z z
z z
z z
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V
Z
I
ZI e V e V
z
z V
e V e V z V

+
=
=
=
= + =
c
c
+ =
0
1
) (
) (
Y
Z
Z =
0
We have,







Since R<<jL and G<<jC (R, G, L & C are of the order of 10 , 1 , 1 mH and 1nF resp.)
and > 2 x 10
8
radians/s
EXPRESSION FOR Z0

C
L
Z
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C
L
C j
G
L j
R
C
L
Z
C j
G
L j
R
C j
L j
C j G
L j R
Y
Z
Z
=
<< =
<<
(

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+
= =
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
e e
e e
e e e e e e
e
e
e
e
e
e

We have,







Since R<<jL and G<<jC
EXPRESSION FOR

LC and
C
L
G
L
C
R
LC j
C
L
G
L
C
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
C j
G
L j
R
LC j
C j
G
L j
R
LC j
C j
G
L j
R
C j L j C j G L j R ZY
e | o
e
e e
e e e e
e
e e
e
e e
e e e e
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
<<
(

+ + + =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + + = =
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1 1 ) )( ( ) )( (
R is generally in a few /m & L is in a few nH
Similarly, C is in pF & G in mMhos/m
BUT
> 2 *1 GHz.
Phase Velocity is the velocity at which the wave travels. In free space and air, the phase
velocity denoted by v
p
is 3x10
8
m/s

It is given by


In free space


In a lossy medium, relative velocity is given by

CONCEPT OF PHASE VELOCITY

r r
r
p
p
c
v
s m x
LC
v
LC
v
c c
c
|
e
= =
= = =
= =
1
/ 10 3
1 1
1
8
0 0
General solution of the transmission line equations is as given below




V
+
and V
-
are the forward and reflected waves
Reflected wave arises due to mismatch in the characteristic and load impedances
Reflected wave = 0 if Z
0
= Z


if Z
0
Z

then there will be reflections and the reflection will be complex






REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

( )
z z
z z
e V e V
Z
I
e V e V V

+
=
+ =
0
1
~
Z

Z
g
P
s

Z
0

P
rs

P
inc

P
ref

P
tr

l
d
Reflection coefficient is defined as


At the receiving end, let the travelling waves be



EXPRESSIONS FOR REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

= I
e V
e V
( )

e V e V
Z
I
e V e V e V

=
+ =
0
1
~
Z

Z
0
P
s

Z
0

P
rs

P
inc

P
ref

P
tr



At the load end, Z

is given by

is the reflection coefficient at the receiving end or the load end

The reflection coefficient depends on the load impedance
EXPRESSIONS FOR REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

I =
+

= =
+ +
+

+
=

+
= =

+
0
0
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
e V
e V
e V e V e V e V
e V e V e V e V
e V e V
e V e V
Z
Z
e V e V
e V e V
Z
I
V
Z
l l l

The reflection coefficient is a complex quantity and can be expressed as


At a distance of d from the load, the reflection coefficient will be given by,



This may also be expressed as




EXPRESSIONS FOR REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

u j
l l
e I = I
d
l
d
d
d
d
d
e
e e V
e e V
e V
e V

2
) (
) (

I = = = I

( ) ) ( 2 2 2 2 d j d
l
d j
l
d
l d
l
e e e e
| u o | o +
I = I = I = I

Transmission coefficient is defined as













EXPRESSION FOR TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT

( )
( )
2
0
2
0
0
0 0
0
0
1
1
2
l
L
L
L tr
tr
l
l l
L
L L
l
l l
L
L
l
l
Z
Z
T
Z Z
Z
V
V
T
V
e
e V e V
But
Z Z
Z Z Z Z
e V
e V e V
Z Z
Z Z
e V
e V
I =
I + =
+
= =
=
+
+
+ +
=
+
+

=
+

+ +
= = =
I
I
V
V
current or voltage Incident
current or voltage d Transmitte
T
tr tr

Voltage Standing Wave results from the fact that two travelling wave components add in
phase at some points along the line and subtract at other points





Since and are real, the voltage standing wave may be expressed as







VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE

| | | |
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(
(

=
(

+ + =
=
+ =
+ + =
+ = + =

+
) tan( tan
) ( sin ) ( cos
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(
1
2 / 1
2
2
2
2
0
0
z
e V e V
e V e V
z e V e V z e V e V V
e V V
z e V e V j z e V e V V
z j z e V z j z e V V
e e V e e V e V e V V
z z
z z
z z z z
j
s
z z z z
z z
z j z z j z z z
| |
| |
| |
| | | |
o o
o o
o o o o
|
o o o o
o o
| o | o
z
e V
o
+
z
e V
o

VSWR is defined as



V
max
occurs when both forward and reverse waves add and V
min
occurs when both forward
and reverse waves subtract.


Substituting,




Therefore, Alternatively,







VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO

min
max
min
max
I
I
V
V
current or voltage Minimum
current or voltage Maximum
VSWR = = = =
z z
e V e V V
o o

+
+ =
max
z z
e V e V V
o o

+
=
min
( )
( ) I
I +
=
1
1

( )
( ) 1
1
+

= I

( )
( )
I
I +
=

+
=
+
+
=

+

+
1
1
1
1
z z z
z z z
z z
z z
e V e V e V
e V e V e V
e V e V
e V e V
o o o
o o o
o o
o o

V
max
occurs when z = n
V
min
occurs when z = (2n-1)/2







Inductive load Maxima near load Capacitive load Minima near load

LOCATION OF MAXIMA & MINIMA OF VSWR

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
z z z z z
z z
z z z z z z
e V e V e V z j e V e V z V
z j z e V z j z e V V
e V e V e V e V e V e V V
o o o o o
o o
| o | o
| |
| | | |

+
+ =
+ + =
+ = + =
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(
/2
V
max

V
min

V
max

V
min

/2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
VSWR (s11) Reflected Power (%) Reflected Power (dB)
1.0 0.000 0.00 -Infinity
1.5 0.200 4.0 -14.0
2.0 0.333 11.1 -9.55
2.5 0.429 18.4 -7.36
3.0 0.500 25.0 -6.00
3.5 0.556 30.9 -5.10
4.0 0.600 36.0 -4.44
5.0 0.667 44.0 -3.52
6.0 0.714 51.0 -2.92
7.0 0.750 56.3 -2.50
8.0 0.778 60.5 -2.18
9.0 0.800 64.0 -1.94
10.0 0.818 66.9 -1.74
15.0 0.875 76.6 -1.16
20.0 0.905 81.9 -0.87
50.0 0.961 92.3 -0.35
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Generally, reflection coefficient = < 1 and is complex

IF LOAD IS PERFECTLY MATCHED TO THE LINE. = 0 ; VSWR = 1;
IF THEN THE LINE IS A SHORT CIRCUIT. = -1 ; VSWR = ;
IF, THEN THE LINE IS AN OPEN CIRCUIT. = +1; VSWR = ;

VSWR >1. It is a dimensionless ratio.
Typical VSWR values of a Troposcatter communication system
1:1 is perfect and is rarely achieved.
1.2 : 1 is very good and practical systems target this figure
1.5 : 1 usually gives a minor alarm in systems
2 : 1 is excessive and results in major alarm.

Return Loss is given by RL = -20log
10
|

| dB (Loss due to reflection of signal)

Insertion Loss is given by -20log
10
|T| dB (Loss due to insertion of load)
POINTS TO REMEMBER
Maximum power is delivered o the load if = 0 & no power if = 1
As |

| increases, VSWR increases as does degree of mismatch between line &

load
Distance between successive minima of voltage maxima is /2 and distance
between maxima and minima is /4

At voltage maxima, Z = Z
0
* VSWR
At voltage minima, Z = Z
0
/ VSWR



General solution of the transmission line equations is as given below




LINE IMPEDANCE

z z z z
z z
e
Z
V
e
Z
V
e I e I I
e V e V V


0 0

+
= + =
+ =
~
Z
l

Z
g

I
g

Z
P
rs
P
ref

P
tr

l
Z
s

V
s
V V
r

Z
r

I
r
I
l


z
d

We have



From the sending end, z = 0 and

We get and

Hence,



Impedance at any point on the line calculated in terms of Z
s
(from the sending end) is








LINE IMPEDANCE

z z z z
z z
e
Z
V
e
Z
V
e I e I I
e V e V V


0 0

+
= + =
+ =
+
+ = V V Z I
s s
( )
0
2
Z Z
I
V
s
s
+ =
+
( )
0
2
Z Z
I
V
s
s
=

( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
z
s
z
s
s
z
s
z
s
s
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
I
e Z Z e Z Z
I
V


0 0
0
0 0
2
2
+ =
+ + =

( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
z
s
z
s
z
s
z
s
s
s
e Z Z e Z Z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
V
Z


0 0
0 0
0
+
+ +
= =

+
= V V Z I
s 0

At z = , line impedance can be expressed as in terma of Z

and Z
0




Solving these two equations we get,







Putting ( - z) = d, impedance at any point on the line calculated in terms of Z

(from the
load end) is





LINE IMPEDANCE

( )
l
s
s
e Z Z
I
V

0
2
+ =
+
( )
l
s
s
e Z Z
I
V

=
0
2
l l
l l
e V e V Z I
e V e V Z I

+
=
+ =
0

( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
d
l
d
l
d
l
d
l
e Z Z e Z Z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z Z

+
+ +
=
0 0
0 0
0
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
) (
0
) (
0
0
) (
0
) (
0
2
2
z
s
z
s
s
z
s
z
e Z Z e Z Z
Z
I
I
e Z Z e Z Z
I
V


+ =
+ + =

e

= cosh() sin()
Impedance from sending end is given by,





Impedance from the receiving end is





LINE IMPEDANCE IN TERMS OF HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS

| |
| |
| |
| | d Z Z
d Z Z
Z
d Z d Z
d Z d Z
Z Z

tanh
tanh
sinh cosh
sinh cosh
0
0
0
0
0
0

+
+
=
+
+
=
| |
| |
| |
| | z Z Z
z Z Z
Z
z Sin Z z Z
z Sin Z z Z
Z Z
s
s
s
s

tanh
tanh
cosh
cosh
0
0
0
0
0
0

=

If the load end is open circuited,


Since all the power is reflected, the incident voltage and
the reflected voltage are equal at the load.



Due to the open circuit, current is zero at the load





OPEN CIRCUITED LINE

| |
| |

coth
tanh 1
tanh 1
0
0
0
0
jZ
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
/2
( )
+

+
+ =
jV
V
e e V V
j j
2
| |
+
jV
V
2
+
jV
IZ
2
0
( )
+

+
=
jV
V
e e
Z
V
I
j j
2
0
| |

If the load end is short circuited,


Since all the power is reflected, the incident voltage and
the reflected voltage are equal at the load.



Due to the open circuit, current is zero at the load



Impedance of a short circuited line is purely reactive
At = \4, z is infinity(since current is 0) repeating at \2



SHORT CIRCUITED LINE

| |
| |

tanh
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
jZ
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
/2
( )
+

+
+ =
V
V
e e V V
j j
2
| |
+
V
V
2
+
V
IZ
2
0
( )
+

+
= =
V
VZ
e e
Z
V
I
j j
2
0
0
| |

If the load end is short circuited,



If the load end is open circuited




Solving these two equations we get,




Normalized Impedance is calculated as



SHORT & OPEN CIRCUITED LINE

oc sc
oc sc
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
=
=
0
2
0
| |
| |

tanh
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
| |
| |
( ) | |
( ) | |

coth
tanh
tan / 1
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z =
+
+
=
+
+
=
| |
| | I
I +
= =
1
1
0
Z
Z
z


For a loss line, at = /4



For = 0, Z
in
= Z
0.
Hence, if Z
1
is chosen carefully, the line will look as if it is terminated in Z
0.
whereas, the load impedance remains unchanged.

Hence, adding a quarter wavelength section of appropriate characteristic impedance to the
line will match the load impedance




QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER

| |
| |

Z
Z
jZ l Z
jZ Z
Z Z
in
2
1
1
0
1
sin cos
sin cos
=
+
+
=
| |
| |
Z

Z
0

Z
1

Z
in

/4