Chapter 2

Forces
To study the effect of forces acting on particles.
2.1 Equilibrium of a Particle
2.2 Free Body Diagram
2.3 Force Vectors
2.4 Forces in a Plane
2.5 Forces in Space
Expected Outcomes
Understand the condition for a particle to be in static
equilibrium
Able to construct free body diagrams
Able to solve for the forces acting on a static particle

2.1
Equilibrium
of a Particle
www.classical.com/features
2.1.1 Condition for the
Equilibrium of a Particle
Particle is at equilibrium if it is
a) At rest
b) Moving at constant velocity

2.1.1 Condition for the Equilibrium
of a Particle



Newtons first law of motion
F = 0
where F is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
particle

(a) Equilibrium at rest
Even Univ.
Graduates
Newtons Law of
Motion
1
st
law a particle
originally at rest, or
moving in a straight
line with constant
velocity, tends to
remain in its state
provided the particle
is not subjected to an
unbalanced force.
http://www.jameslogancourier.org/index.php?blogid=1&archive=2006-3-21
(a) Equilibrium at rest
2.1.1 Condition for the
Equilibrium of a Particle
Newtons second law of motion
F = ma

When the force fulfill Newton's first law of motion,
ma = 0
a = 0
therefore, the particle is moving in constant velocity or at rest

(b) Equilibrium at motion
2.1.1 Condition for the Equilibrium of
a Particle
Forces in equilibrium
2.1.1 Condition for the
Equilibrium of a Particle
Methods to solve for force equilibrium:
graphical solution yields a closed polygon
algebraic solution


0 = =

F R

2.2 Free Body Diagram
2.2 The Free-Body Diagram (FBD)
~ the best representation of all the unknown forces (F)
which acts on a body
~ a sketch showing the particle free from the
surroundings with all the forces acting on it

Two common connections which are usually replaced as
forces in FBD
Spring
Cables and Pulleys

2.2.1 The Free-Body Diagram: Spring
Linear elastic spring:
change in spring length, s force acting on it, F
The magnitude of force F = ks
k = spring constant or stiffness - defines the elasticity of
the spring
Direction of force depends on the spring (compressed or
elongated) - in the direction of the spring force is acting
(or, against the compressed or elongated direction of the
spring)

2.2.2 The Free-Body Diagram: Cables
and Pulley
Cables (or cords) are assumed negligible weight and cannot
stretch
Tension always acts in the direction of the cable






For any angle in the figure, the cable is subjected to a
constant tension T

2.2.3 Procedure for Drawing a FBD
1. Draw outlined shape
- Identify the shape of interest
2. Show all the forces
- Active forces: particle in motion
- Reactive forces: constraints that prevent motion
3. Identify each forces
- Known forces with proper magnitude and direction
- Letters used to represent magnitude and directions
Example
Space Diagram: A sketch
showing the physical
conditions of the problem.
Free-Body Diagram: A sketch
showing only the forces on the
selected particle.
Determine the
forces in the cables.
Free-Body Diagram-Example
Apply the method described in the paragraph above
to construct free-body diagrams for the various
situations described below.
(a) A book is at rest on a tabletop. Diagram the forces
acting on the book
(b) A girl is suspended motionless from the ceiling by two
ropes. Diagram the forces acting on the combination
of girl and bar.
(c) An egg is free-falling from a nest in a tree. Neglect air
resistance. Diagram the forces acting on the egg as it
is falling.
(d) A flying squirrel is gliding (no wingflaps) from a tree
to the ground at constant velocity. Consider air
resistance. Diagram the forces acting on the squirrel.
Free-Body Diagram-Try This!
Apply the method described in the paragraph above to construct
free-body diagrams for the various situations described below.
(a) A rightward force is applied to a
book in order to move it across a
desk with a rightward acceleration.
Consider frictional forces. Neglect air
resistance. Diagram the forces acting
on the book.

(b) A rightward force is applied to a
book in order to move it across a
desk at constant velocity. Consider
frictional forces. Neglect air
resistance.

(c) A college student rests a backpack
upon his shoulder. The pack is
suspended motionless by one strap
from one shoulder
(d) A skydiver is descending
with a constant velocity.
Consider air resistance.

(e) A force is applied to the right
to drag a sled across loosely
packed snow with a
rightward acceleration.

(f) A football is moving upwards
towards its peak after having
been booted by the punter

(g) A car is coasting to the right
and slowing down
Free-Body Diagram-Try This!
Apply the method described in the paragraph above to construct
free-body diagrams for the various situations described below.
(a) A rightward force is applied to a book in
order to move it across a desk with a
rightward acceleration. Consider frictional
forces. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the
forces acting on the book.

(b)A rightward force is applied to a book in
order to move it across a desk at constant
velocity. Consider frictional forces. Neglect
air resistance.

(c)A college student rests a backpack upon his
shoulder. The pack is suspended motionless
by one strap from one shoulder
d) A skydiver is descending with a constant
velocity. Consider air resistance.


e) A force is applied to the right to drag a sled
across loosely packed snow with a rightward
acceleration.


f) A football is moving upwards towards its peak
after having been booted by the punter


g) A car is coasting to the right and slowing down
Free-Body Diagram-Try This!
2.3 Force Vectors
force: action of one body on another; characterized by its
point of application, magnitude, line of action

2.3.1 Scalars & Vectors
Scalar a physical quantity that is completely described by a
real number
E.g. Time, mass (Give more example?)
Vector a physical quantity that is described by magnitude &
direction
E.g. Displacement, forces (Give more example?)
Represented by boldfaced letters: U, V, W,
Magnitude of vector U = |U|
|U| is an absolute value (or modulus) of a real number U;
the numerical value is without regard to its sign.
Example, the absolute value of 3 is 3,
and the absolute value of 3 is also 3.
2.3.2 Vectors
Graphical representation: Arrow
Direction of arrow = direction of vector
Length of arrow is the magnitude of vector
Example:
r
AB
= position of point B relative to point A
Direction of r
AB
= direction from point A to point B
|r
AB
| = distance between 2 points

2.3.2 Vectors
Equal vectors have the same magnitude and
direction.
Negative vector of a given vector has the
same magnitude and the opposite direction.


2.3.3 Vector Operations
Product of a Scalar & a Vector:
Product of scalar (real number) a & vector
U = vector aU
Magnitude = |a||U| , where |a| is the
absolute value of the scalar a
Direction of aU is the same as direction of U
when a is positive
Direction of aU is opposite to direction of U
when a is negative
2.3.3 Vector Operations
Division of a vector U by a scalar a:
U
U
|
.
|

\
|
=
a a
1
2.3.3 Vector Operations
Vectors addition forms a resultant vector.
Triangle rule



Parallelogram rule



Trigonometry
In vector, 3 + 4 7
2.3.3 Vector Operations
Vector addition is commutative:
U + V = V + U
multiplication and addition of numbers

Vector addition is associative:
(U + V) + W = U + (V + W)

If the sum of 2 or more vectors = 0,
they form a closed polygon
2.3.3 Vector Operations
The product is associative with respect to scalar
multiplication:
a(bU) = (ab)U
The product is distributive with respect to scalar
addition:
(a + b)U = aU + bU
The product is distributive with respect to vector
addition:
a(U + V) = aU + aV
2.3.3 Vector Operations
Vector Subtraction:
U V = U + (1)V
2.3.4 Unit Vector
Unit Vectors:
To represent a unit in a direction
Magnitude = 1
If a unit vector e & a vector U have
the same direction: U = |U|e
2.3.5 Position Vectors
Position Vectors in Terms of Components:
Consider point A with coordinates (x
A
, y
A
) & point B
with coordinates (x
B
, y
B
)
2.3.5 Position Vectors
Position Vectors in Terms of Components:
Let r
AB
be the vector that specifies the position of B
relative to A: r
AB
= (x
B
x
A
)i + (y
B
y
A
)j

Vectors QUESTIONS
What is the vector of r
AB
?
2.3.5 Position Vectors
Position Vectors in Terms of
Components:
Consider point A with coordinates
(x
A
, y
A
, z
A
) &
point B with coordinates
(x
B
, y
B
, z
B
)

The position vector r
AB
from A to B:

r
AB
= (x
B
x
A
)i + (y
B
y
A
)j + (z
B
z
A
)k
2.4 Forces in a Plane
Particle: Acting on a same point
2.4.1 Resultant of Two Forces
the combined effect of two
forces may be represented
by a single resultant force.
The resultant is equivalent
to the diagonal of a
parallelogram which
contains the two forces in
adjacent legs.
2.4.2 Resultant of Several Concurrent Forces
Scalar Notation
x and y axes are designated positive and negative
Components of forces expressed as algebraic scalars
u u sin and cos F F F F
F F F
y x
y x
= =
+ =
2.4.2 Resultant of Several Concurrent Forces
Concurrent forces: set of
forces which all pass
through the same point.

A set of concurrent forces
applied to a particle may be
replaced by a single
resultant force which is the
vector sum of the applied
forces.
Vector force components:
two or more force vectors
which, together, have the
same effect as a single force
vector.
2.4.3 Rectangular Components of a
Force: Unit Vectors
Vector components may be expressed as
products of the unit vectors with the scalar
magnitudes of the vector components.


F
x
and F
y
are referred to as the scalar
components of
j F i F F
y x

+ =
F

May resolve a force vector into perpendicular

components so that the resulting
parallelogram is a rectangle.
are referred to as rectangular vector
components and
y x
F F F

+ =
y x
F F

and
Define perpendicular unit vectors
which are parallel to the x and y axes.
j i

and
2.4.4 Addition of a System of Coplanar Forces
S Q P R

+ + =
Wish to find the resultant of 3 or more
concurrent forces,
( ) ( )j S Q P i S Q P
j S i S j Q i Q j P i P j R i R
y y y x x x
y x y x y x y x


+ + + + + =
+ + + + + = +
Resolve each force into rectangular
components

=
+ + =
x
x x x x
F
S Q P R
The scalar components of the resultant
are equal to the sum of the
corresponding scalar components of the
given forces.

=
+ + =
y
y y y y
F
S Q P R
x
y
y x
R
R
R R R
1 2 2
tan

= + = u
To find the resultant magnitude and
direction,
Example 2.6
The link is subjected to two forces F
1
and F
2
. Determine the
magnitude and orientation of the resultant force.


Solution I
Scalar Notation:


| =
+ =
E =
=
=
E =
N
N N F
F F
N
N N F
F F
Ry
y Ry
Rx
x Rx
8 . 582
45 cos 400 30 sin 600
:
8 . 236
45 sin 400 30 cos 600
:


Solution I
Resultant Force



From vector addition, direction angle is

( ) ( )
N
N N F
R
629
8 . 582 8 . 236
2 2
=
+ =

9 . 67
8 . 236
8 . 582
tan
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

N
N
u
Solution II
Cartesian Vector Notation
F
1
= { 600cos30i + 600sin30j } N
F
2
= { -400sin45i + 400cos45j } N

Thus,
F
R
= F
1
+ F
2

= (600cos30N - 400sin45N)i
+ (600sin30N + 400cos45N)j
= {236.8i + 582.8j}N
The magnitude and direction of F
R
are determined in the same
manner as before.

Example 2.3
Determining Components
The cable from point A to point B exerts a 900-N force on the
top of the television transmission tower that is
represented by the
vector F. Express F
in terms of
components using
the coordinate
system shown.
Example 2.3 (continued)
Solution
First Method
Determine the angle between F and the
y axis:
=
|
.
|

\
|
= 6 26
80
40
arctan .
Example 2.3 (continued)
Solution
Use trigonometry to determine F in
terms of its components:
( )
( ) N 805 402
N 6 . 26 cos 900 6 . 26 sin 900
cos sin
o o
j i
j i
j F i F F
=
=
= o o
Example 2.3 (continued)
Solution
Second Method
Using the given dimensions, calculate the
distance from A to B:
( ) ( ) m 4 89 m 80 m 40
2 2
. = +
Example 2.3 (continued)
Solution
Use similar triangles to determine the
components of F:


so
m 89.4
m 80
and
m 89.4
m 40
= =
F F
y
x
F
F
( ) ( )
( ) N 805 402
N 900
4 . 89
40
N 900
4 . 89
40
j i
j i F
=
=
Sample Problem 2.2
a) the tension in each of the
ropes for o = 45
o
,
b) the value of o for which the
tension in rope 2 is a
minimum.
A barge is pulled by two
tugboats. If the resultant of
the forces exerted by the
tugboats is 5000 N directed
along the axis of the barge,
determine
SOLUTION:
Parallelogram Rule for vector
addition
Triangle Rule for vector addition
Sample Problem 2.2
Graphical solution - Parallelogram
Rule with known resultant direction
and magnitude, known directions for
sides.
N 2600 N 3700
2 1
= = T T
Trigonometric solution - Triangle
Rule with Law of Sines

=
105 sin
N 5000
30 sin 45 sin
2 1
T T
N 2590 N 3660
2 1
= = T T
Sample Problem 2.2
The angle for minimum tension in rope
2 is determined by applying the
Triangle Rule and observing the effect
of variations in o.
The minimum tension in rope 2 occurs
when T
1
and T
2
are perpendicular.
( ) = 30 sin N 5000
2
T N 2500
2
= T
( ) = 30 cos N 5000
1
T N 4330
1
= T
= 30 90 o = 60 o
Sample Problem 2.3
Four forces act on bolt A as
shown. Determine the resultant
of the force on the bolt.
SOLUTION:
Resolve each force into
rectangular components.
Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the resultant.
Determine the components of the
resultant by adding the
corresponding force components.
Sample Problem 2.3
SOLUTION:
Resolve each force into rectangular
components.
9 . 25 6 . 96 100
0 . 110 0 110
2 . 75 4 . 27 80
0 . 75 9 . 129 150
4
3
2
1
+

+
+ +

F
F
F
F
comp y comp x mag force

2 2
3 . 14 1 . 199 + = R
N 6 . 199 = R
Calculate the magnitude and direction.
N 1 . 199
N 3 . 14
tan = o
= 1 . 4 o
Determine the components of the
resultant by adding the corresponding
force components.
1 . 199 + =
x
R 3 . 14 + =
y
R
2.5 Forces in Space
2.5.1 Components in Three
Dimensions Space
Right-handed coordinate system

Therefore, vector A can be expressed in
terms of vector components A
x
, A
y
& A
z

parallel to the x, y & z axes respectively:
A = A
x
+ A
y
+ A
z

2.5.1 Components in Three
Dimensions Space
Cartesian Unit Vectors:
Unit vectors i, j & k that point in the positive x, y & z directions in
three dimensions.
A can be expressed as:
A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k
2.5.1 Components in Three
Dimensions Space
Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector
From the colored triangle,

From the shaded triangle,

Combining the equations
gives magnitude of A

2 2 2
z y x
A A A A
+ + =
2 2
'
y x
A A A
+ =
2 2
'
z
A A A
+ =
2.5.1 Components in Three Dimensions Space
Direction of a Cartesian Vector
Orientation of A is defined as the coordinate direction
angles , and measured between the tail of A and
the positive x, y and z axes
0 , and 180
The direction cosines of A is



u
A
can also be expressed as
u
A
= cosi + cosj + cosk

A
A
x
= o cos
A
A
y
= | cos
A
A
z
= cos
2.5.1 Components in Three
Dimensions Space
Direction Cosines:
Direction cosines: cos , cos | & cos
Direction cosines satisfy the relation:
cos
2
+ cos
2
| + cos
2
= 1
Suppose that u is a unit vector with the same direction as A:
A = |A| u
In terms of components:
A = A
x
i + A
y
j + A
z
k = |A| (u
x
i + u
y
j + u
z
k)
2.5.2 Force Components in Space
The vector is
contained in the
plane OBAC.
F

Resolve into
horizontal and
vertical
components.
y h
F F u sin =
F

y y
F F u cos =
Resolve into
rectangular
components.
h
F
| u
|
| u
|
sin sin
sin
cos sin
cos
y
h z
y
h x
F
F F
F
F F
=
=
=
=
2.5.2 Force Components in Space
With the angles between and the axes,
F

( )
k j i
F
k j i F
k F j F i F F
F F F F F F
z y x
z y x
z y x
z z y y x x

u u u

u u u
u u u
cos cos cos
cos cos cos
cos cos cos
+ + =
=
+ + =
+ + =
= = =
is a unit vector along the line of action of
and are the direction
cosines for
F

z y x
u u u cos and , cos , cos
2.5.2 Force Components in Space
Direction of the force is defined
by the location of two points,
( ) ( )
2 2 2 1 1 1
, , and , , z y x N z y x M
( )
d
Fd
F
d
Fd
F
d
Fd
F
k d j d i d
d
F F
z z d y y d x x d
k d j d i d
N M d
z
z
y
y
x
x
z y x
z y x
z y x
= = =
+ + =
=
= = =
+ + =
=

1
and joining vector
1 2 1 2 1 2

2.5.3 Addition and Subtraction of Cartesian Vectors

Concurrent Force Systems
Force resultant is the vector sum of all the forces in the
system

F
R
= F = F
x
i + F
y
j + F
z
k
Example 2.8
Express the force F as Cartesian vector.
Solution
Since two angles are specified, the third angle is found by




Two possibilities exit, namely
( )

120 5 . 0 cos
1
= =

o
( )

60 5 . 0 cos
1
= =

o
( ) ( )

5 . 0 707 . 0 5 . 0 1 cos
1 45 cos 60 cos cos
1 cos cos cos
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= =
= + +
= + +
o
o
| o
Solution
By inspection, = 60 since F
x
is in the +x direction
Given F = 200N
F = Fcosi + Fcosj + Fcosk
= (200cos60N)i + (200cos60N)j
+ (200cos45N)k
= {100.0i + 100.0j + 141.4k}N
Checking:
( ) ( ) ( ) N
F F F F
z y x
200 4 . 141 0 . 100 0 . 100
2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + =
+ + =
Example 2.6
Direction Cosines
The coordinates of point C of the truss are x
C
= 4 m, y
C
= 0, z
C
= 0,
and the coordinates of point D are x
D
= 2 m, y
D
= 3 m, z
D
= 1 m.
What are the direction
cosines of the position
vector r
CD
from point C
to point D?
Example 2.6 (continued)
Solution
Determine the position vector r
CD
in terms of its components.
r
CD
= (x
D
x
C
)i + (y
D
y
C
)j +
(z
D
z
C
)k
= (2 4)i + (3 0)j +
(1 0) k (m)
= 2i + 3j + k (m)
Example 2.6 (continued)
Solution
Calculate the magnitude of r
CD
.
( ) ( ) ( )
m 3.74
m 1 m 3 m 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
=
+ + =
+ + =
z
CD
y
CD
x
CD CD
r r r r
Example 2.6 (continued)
Solution
Determine the direction cosines.
267 . 0
m 3.74
m 1
cos
, 802 . 0
m 3.74
m 3
cos
, 535 . 0
m 3.74
m 2
cos
= = =
= = =
=

= =
CD
z
CD
z
CD
y
CD
y
CD
x
CD
x
r
r
r
r
r
r
u
u
u
Example 2.13
The man pulls on the cord with a force of 350N. Represent this force
acting on the support A, as a Cartesian vector and determine its
direction.

Solution
End points of the cord are A (0m, 0m, 7.5m) and
B (3m, -2m, 1.5m)
r = (3m 0m)i + (-2m 0m)j + (1.5m 7.5m)k
= {3i 2j 6k}m

Magnitude = length of cord AB



Unit vector,
u = r /r
= 3/7i - 2/7j - 6/7k
( ) ( ) ( ) m m m m r 7 6 2 3
2 2 2
= + + =
Solution
Force F has a magnitude of 350N, direction specified by u.
F = Fu
= 350N(3/7i - 2/7j - 6/7k)
= {150i - 100j - 300k} N

= cos
-1
(3/7) = 64.6
= cos
-1
(-2/7) = 107
= cos
-1
(-6/7) = 149
Sample Problem 2.7
The tension in the guy wire is
2500 N. Determine:
a) components F
x
, F
y
, F
z
of the
force acting on the bolt at A,
b) the angles u
x
, u
y
, u
z
defining
the direction of the force
SOLUTION:
Based on the relative locations of
the points A and B, determine the
unit vector pointing from A towards
B.
Apply the unit vector to determine
the components of the force acting
on A.
Noting that the components of the
unit vector are the direction cosines
for the vector, calculate the
corresponding angles.
Sample Problem 2.7
SOLUTION:
Determine the unit vector pointing from A
towards B.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
m 3 . 94
m 30 m 80 m 40
m 30 m 80 m 40
2 2 2
=
+ + =
+ + =
AB
k j i AB


Determine the components of the force.
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )k j i
k j i
F F

N 795 N 2120 N 1060
318 . 0 848 . 0 424 . 0 N 2500
+ + =
+ + =
=
k j i
k j i

318 . 0 848 . 0 424 . 0

3 . 94
30
3 . 94
80
3 . 94
40
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

=
Sample Problem 2.7
Noting that the components of the unit
vector are the direction cosines for the
vector, calculate the corresponding angles.
k j i
k j i
z y x

318 . 0 848 . 0 424 . 0

cos cos cos
+ + =
+ + = u u u

5 . 71
0 . 32
1 . 115
=
=
=
z
y
x
u
u
u
Outcomes
Assessment
Understand the condition for a particle to be in static equilibrium
Able to construct free body diagrams
Able to solve for the forces acting on a static particle

Task 1
Register an user account in
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before 15 Oct 2011.
Committee code: 102924