Reading: Chap 1.1, 1.2, 1.

The Atmosphere
Characterized by
Chemical composition
Major components: N2, O2, Ar Trace gases Aerosols

Physical phenomena
Solar radiation, terrestrial thermal radiation and energy balance Atmospheric zones Atmospheric density Atmospheric pressure
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Chemical Composition
Atmosphere is a mixture of gases and particulate-phase substances
Most abundant
Nitrogen (78 %) Oxygen (21 %)

Trace gases and aerosols make up approximately 1 % (Table 1.1)

Some are present in constant concentrations

N2, O2 and noble gases

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Chemical Composition
Others vary temporally and spatially:
Water vapor (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide (CO) Ozone (O3) Methane (CH4) Nitrogen oxides (nitrous oxide (N2O); nitric oxide (NO); nitrogen dioxide (NO2)) Why do they vary? Ammonia (NH3) How do they vary? Formaldehyde (HCHO) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Reduced sulfur compounds (H2S, COS, CS2, (CH3)2S) Odd hydrogen species (OH,HO2,H2O2)

Particulate-phase species
Nitrate (NO3-), Ammonium (NH4+), Sulfate (SO4 2+)
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Nitrogen (N2)
Most abundant atmospheric gas Limited direct role in atmospheric and life processes Precursor for the formation of nitrate used by plants to synthesize proteins Results from atmospheric and symbiotic biological processes

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Nitrous oxide (N2O) Nitric oxide (NO) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Dintrogen pentoxide (N2O5) Nitrate radical (NO3)

What are these atmospheric and biological processes?

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Oxygen (O2)
Essential for metabolism; Required for the evolution of life Precursor for the production of stratospheric O3; formation of the O3 layer made life possible

O3:
background surface levels (~ 20 ppbv); peak levels (810 ppmv) occur in middle stratosphere Absorbs UV and thermal energy
Figure 1.1
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Stratospheric O3
Varies seasonally and latitudinally Highest production occurs in the tropics Highest concentrations at Why? poles Significant transport
Figure 1.2 Total column O3 (vertical sum)

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Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Atmospheric concentration of 0.037% (370 ppmv) Raw material for photosynthesis Thermal absorber and major greenhouse gas

Noble Gases (Ar, Ne, He, Kr, Xe)

Ar concentration of 0.934% Not participating in atmospheric reactions

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Water (H2O)
Present as a solid, liquid and gas; phase changes are a major factor in weather phenomenon Has significant atmospheric effects Water vapor concentrations highly variable (0.130,000 ppmv) Water vapor is a thermal absorber and major greenhouse gas; characterized by phase changes at ambient temperatures

www.raindropimage.com

www.edholden.com

www.ux1.eiu.edu

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Clouds
Form as warm, moist air rises and condenses Large air mass of tiny water droplets Droplets must grow a million fold to produce rain Light scattering appears to give these form By reflecting sunlight are primarily responsible for the earths albedo Absorb thermal energy and retard its flow to space Associated air mass an agent of water and energy movement in the atmosphere

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How did the earth's atmosphere get the way it is? (a theory)
Earth formed (4.6 billions years ago) with no atmosphere or lost whatever atmosphere it might have had very early in its history Some geophysical process is needed that emits gases so that an atmosphere can form Source of gaseous emissions is volcanism. Likely only a very small fraction of these molecules lost to space. Paradox - composition of volcanic emissions is very different from that of present atmosphere; volcanic emissions: 85% H2O vapor, 10% CO2, a few percent of nitrogen and sulfur compounds, traces of noble gases and other species, O2 is absent.
Where did all the O2 come from?
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Conceptualization of UV absorption allowing development of photosynthesis

As the surface cooled, water condensed CO2 dissolved in the newly formed ocean and precipitated (limestone, dolomite rock) Evolution of life was preceded by formation of organic species catalyst CO2 2 H 2 UV CH 3OH
catalyst CO H 2 UV HCHO

Organic matter produced by photosynthesis may be removed before reoxidation, i.e. fossilized. Certain life-forms in the ocean developed the ability to photo-synthetically produce organic molecules and free O2.
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organism H 2O CO2 UV CH 2O O2

burial of carbon

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Build-up of Atmospheric Oxygen

Each fossilized C-atom originating from CO2 that is removed from the atmosphere is essentially replaced by a molecule of O2 The fraction of CO2 in the atmosphere would be reduced and the fraction of O2 would increase Initially O2 increase is slow since all of the surface minerals would be slowly oxidized, gradually O2 builds up N2 is not very reactive; hence, it accumulated and became a larger fraction of the earth's gas composition

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Importance of Stratospheric Ozone

As O2 builds in the atmosphere, O3 forms and reduces the penetration of UV light to the surface Photosynthesis can then take place on land

O2 + h 2 O O2 + O + M O3 O3 + h O2 + O

burial of carbon

Are we in danger of depleting oxygen in the atmosphere if we continue to burn fossil fuels?
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Solar Radiation
Source of most of the earths energy Emitted by the sun at an effective black body temperature of 6000 oK What is black body? Received by the earth at a constant rate
External to the earth (1370 W/m2/s) Per unit earth surface area (343 W/m2/s)
Figure 1.4

What happened to the difference?

What are the features of the spectrum?

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Solar Spectrum
Most energy in the 0.15- 4 m region Half of this energy in visible light spectrum; peaks in the green at 0.49 m Partially absorbed by atmospheric gases UV radiation
< 0.18 m by O2 at 100 km; 0.2-0.3 m by O3 below 60 km

Infrared radiation
H2O, CO2

Earths Albedo
Ability of the atmosphere and earth surfaces to reflect sunlight; varies regionally/seasonally Averages ~ 30%; primarily due to clouds (55%), the cloud-free atmosphere (23%), and earth surfaces (22%)
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Thermal Radiation
Earth absorbs solar radiation and re-emits longer infra-red wavelengths Earth radiates as black body at 290oK
Figure 1.5

What are the features of the spectrum?

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Thermal Emissions
Emission is primarily in the 130 m spectral region Peak emission at 11 m Significant absorption by H2O, CO2, and other greenhouse gases Significant transmission through the atmospheric window(~ 7-13 m)

www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/252.html

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Earths Energy Balance

/s /s

What happened to the difference?

/s

What if there is no absorption?

390 W/m2/s

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Surface Air Temperatures

Average surface air temperature (~ 15oC or 59 oF) Vary regionally due to the unequal distribution of solar radiation The difference results in energy transport by atmosphere and ocean currents

Vertical Temperature Distribution

Significant temperature changes with height occur Vertical temperature patterns describe atmospheric zones or layers
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Vertical Temperatures and Zones

Troposphere
Lowest layer of atmosphere Temperature decreases with height on average 6.5 oC/km Depth varies from 8-18 km Characterized by vertical and horizontal air motion; Location of all "weather" phenomena Characterized by 2 regions
Planetary boundary layer(~ 1 km depth) Free troposphere
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Vertical Temperatures and Zones

Stratopause
Isothermal conditions Forms boundary between stratosphere & mesosphere

Tropopause
Layer of air immediately above troposphere Temperature is isothermal Varies in depth

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Vertical Temperatures and Zones

Stratosphere
Temperature increases with height to altitude of 45-55 km Very stable region with little vertical mixing of air Few clouds/no weather Warmer temperatures due to absorption of UV radiation Complex chemistry involving NO, OH., NH3, O, O2, O3, Cl + other species. Chapman Reactions: O+ O2 + M O3 + M O + O+ M O2 + M O3 + h O2 + O + Heat for h corresponding to 0.24
0.30 m
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Vertical Temperatures and Zones

Mesosphere
Temperature decreases with height up to an altitude of 85 km Coldest region of atmosphere Rapid vertical mixing Photo dissociation of oxygen:
O2 + h 2O + Heat for h corresponding to 0.18 0.24 m Chapman Reactions: O+ O2 + M O3 + M O + O+ M O2 + M O3 + h O2 + O + Heat for h corresponding to 0.24 0.30 ~m
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Vertical Temperatures and Zones

Thermosphere
Extends from 90-95 km to ~ 1000 km High thermodynamic temperatures (~1200 oC) Solar energy absorbed by N2 & O2
Results in photo-ionization Ionized layer called the ionosphere
Forms auroras Reflects radio signals

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Aurora Borealis

Aurora in Fairbanks, Alaska

Why different colors? http://www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/

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Atmospheric Density
Mass of atmospheric molecules per unit volume of air Decreases exponentially with height Most (80-90%) atmospheric mass below 12 km; 99% below 33 km
How does density change wrt elevation? Whats the role of density in air pollution?
Figure 1.7
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Atmospheric Pressure
Force applied to a surface as a result of the collision of molecules with it Maximum values at sea level
760 mmHg, 29.92 inHg, 14.7 PSI, 1.012325 x 105 Pa, 1013 mbars

Small surface differences occur as a result of temperature and density differences

What are the parameters that affect pressure? How does it change wrt height? Why does it change in that way?

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Quick Reflection

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