1

Presentation by:Dewa Gde Ngurah Baruna Wijaya Number:09 Class:09

Staining

In a living cell seen under the microscope, it is often difficult to see the nucleus

When certain stains are applied, the nucleus takes up the stain more strongly than the cytoplasm does, making the nucleus easily visible

By means of some special techniques of illumination, the nucleus and other structures may be seen in the living cell. But in this presentation and in most textbooks, the nucleus is shown dark, as if it had been stained It is the differences in chemical composition between nucleus and cytoplasm that make one take up a particular stain more strongly than the other

Cell 1
nuclear membrane

cytoplasm

In a cell which is not about to divide, the structures in the nucleus are not distinct

Cell 2

Just before cell division, thread-like structures appear in the nucleus

Cell 3

chromosomes

These structures are called chromosomes They get shorter and thicker and take up stains very strongly

Cell 4

The shortening and thickening continues. Now the chromosomes are seen to be in pairs
To continue the sequence for cell division click here

Chromosome pairs

It may not be obvious from this illustration, but the chromosomes are always in pairs. They are distinguished by their size.

10

The chromosomes are always in pairs because one of them is derived from the male parent and the other from the female parent Different species have different numbers and shapes of chromosomes Members of the same species have identical sets of chromosomes

Chromosome numbers

11

kangaroo (6 pairs)

a sedge (21 pairs) hawkweed (4 pairs*)

chicken (18 pairs)

fruit fly (4 pairs)

human (23 pairs)

12

Although chromosomes can be seen distinctly only at the time of cell division, they are present and active all the time
The chromosomes carry the DNA DNA controls all the chemical reactions in the cell DNA also determines the species of organism and its individual characteristics (See the presentation on DNA for more detail)

Chromosomes and DNA

DNA

13

chromosome

protein double helix

Chromosomes consist of DNA molecules supported by a scaffold of proteins. The diagram illustrates such an arrangement but it is really more complex than this

14

The DNA in the chromosomes carries the genes

Consequently, the genes are spaced out along the chromosome The genes consist of distinct stretches of the DNA
By means of their DNA content, the genes control the activities of the cell, the type of cell it becomes, the species of the organism and the individual characteristics of that organism

Chromosomes and genes

chromosome

15

genes for hair colour single gene genes for tallness genes for eye colour

The diagram illustrates the relationship between chromosomes and genes but it does not represent an actual chromosome.
The genes for these characteristics are not necessarily on the same chromosome and the number of genes shown is arbitrary

Chromosomes and genes

A

16
a b c

Because the chromosomes are in pairs, the genes they carry are also in pairs Each member of a pair of genes comes from either the male or the female parent just as the chromosomes do The individual genes of a pair, control the same characteristic, e.g. B and b could control eye colour; G and g could control hair colour

B C D E F G

d
e f g
h

H
I

Chromatids

17

chromatids

Just before cell division, it can be seen that the chromosomes have replicated; that is each chromosome has made a copy of itself (including its DNA). These copies and the originals are now called chromatids

Centromere

18

The chromatids tend to separate but are held together by a special region called the centromere

chromatids

19

The next sequence of slides shows the way the chromosomes are distributed during cell division

For clarity, only two pairs of chromosomes are represented

The chromosomes coloured blue are derived from the male parent; the chromosomes shown in red are from the female parent

Cell division 1

20

Two pairs of chromosomes. Each chromosome has replicated to form chromatids

Cell division 2

21 The nuclear membrane disappears Fibres appear in the cytoplasm and form a spindle

The chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle

Cell division 3

22 The spindle fibres shorten and appear to pull the chromatids apart by their centromeres

Cell division 4
The chromatids are now chromosomes.

23

The chromosomes migrate to opposite ends of the cell as the spindle fibres shorten

Cell division 5

24

The cell begins to divide

25

Cell division 6

The nuclear membrane forms again

The cell constricts

The chromosomes become less distinct

Cell division 7
Two cells formed

26

The chromosomes revert to their elongated thin shape and eventually cannot be seen

Each cell now has a full set of chromosomes identical to the parent cell

Plant and animal cells

27

Plant cells divide by building a new cell wall

Animal cells divide by a constriction of their cytoplasm

Mitosis

28

This process of cell division, which produces cells containing identical sets and numbers of chromosomes, is called

MITOSIS
Mitosis ensures that every cell of an organism carries an identical set of genes Can you see a problem with this?

29

The problem is that if every cell carries the same set of genes, how do cells become specialised in shape and function to do different jobs? For example, what can a gene for brown eyes do in a stomach cell? The answer is that the genes which are not relevant to the cells function are not activated. We say the gene for brown eyes is not expressed in a stomach cell

Mitosis

30

4 6 5

31

The next slide shows a photomicrograph of onion root cells.

In a root tip, a great many cells are dividing by mitosis, leading to rapid growth. The preparation is made by softening the root tip tissue, squashing it on a microscope slide and staining the chromosomes and nuclei. The squash technique spreads the cells out. See if you can associate the various stages of cell division with the stages 1-6 in the previous slide. Bear in mind that the previous slide is a purely diagrammatic representation.

32

Root tip squash

4

4 2
5
McLeish & Snoad Macmillan

33

Question 1
Staining techniques show up the nucleus because (a) The nucleus is enclosed in a nuclear membrane

(b) Nucleus and cytoplasm have different chemical properties

(c) The cytoplasm is less concentrated than the nucleoplasm (d) The nucleus is in the middle of the cell

34

Question 2
When are chromosomes present in the nucleus ? (a) Only just before cell division

(b) Only during cell division

(c) Only after cell division (d) All the time

35

Question 3
Chromosomes are in pairs because (a) They have replicated (b) Each is derived from either the male or female parent (c) They are joined at the centromere (d) They have to be shared at cell division

Question 4

36

How many chromosomes are there in a human cell? (a) 100+

(b) 92
(c) 46 (d) 23

Question 5
Which of these statements are correct ? DNA controls (a) The species of the organism (b) The function of the cell

37

(c) Features of the organism such as size

(d) Chemical reactions in the cell

38

Question 6
Which of these statements are correct?
A chromosome contains (a) Protein (b) Cellulose (c) DNA (d) Genes

Question 7
The process by which a chromosome makes a copy of itself is called (a) Reproduction (b) Recombination

39

(c) Relocation
(d) Replication

Question 8

40

What is the correct sequence of events in mitosis ? (a) c, d, a, b, e, f (b) b, c, a, d, e, f (c) c, b, a, e, d, f (d) c, b, d, a, e, f

Answer
Correct

Answer
Incorrect