Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was obtained from the website of B.

Dodge, Department of Applied Health Science at Indiana University.

http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/,
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What is Qualitative Research?

A holistic approach to questions--a recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions. The focus is on human experience The research strategies used generally feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior.
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Qualitative Research cont.

There is typically a high level of researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used. The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations.
Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001
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Types of Qualitative Data

1. Interviews 2. Observations 3. Documents

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Types of Qualitative Data

1. Interviews
Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about peoples experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.
Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable.

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Types of Qualitative Data cont.

2. Observations
Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience.

Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within which the observations were made.
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Types of Qualitative Data cont.

3.
Documents Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys. Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context.

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Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry

1. Biography--Life history, oral history 2. Phenomenology--The lived experience 3. Grounded theory 4. Ethnography 5. Case Study
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Biographical Study
The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material.
Life history--The study of an individuals life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society.

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Biographical Study cont.

Oral history--The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from and individual or several individuals. The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography

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Biographical Study cont.

The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.

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Phenomenology
Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.

It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc. --Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)

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Phenomenology
Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.
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Grounded Theory

Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors.

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Grounded Theory cont.

The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful
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Grounded Theory cont.

Usually have a question, dont do a literature review in the beginning.

Usually do 20-30 interviews (maybe more than one time for each person)
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Grounded Theory cont.

Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until saturation is reached.
Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes.

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Grounded Theory cont.

Data analysis generates a visual picture, a narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences. The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data. Systematic approach
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Ethnography
A description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the groups observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life. Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation.
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Ethnography
Field Work Key Informants Thick description Emic (insider group perspective) and Etic (researchers interpretation of social life). Context important, need holistic view. Need grounding in anthropology.

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Ethnography cont.
Need extensive time to collect data Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.

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Ethnography cont.

May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.

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Case Study
A case study is an exploration of a bounded system or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.

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The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/orQualitative economic. Research--Simpson

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Case Study cont.

Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials. Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher.

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Feminist Research
Uses feminist theory as the philosophical underpinning of the approach. Assumes most formal knowledge is generated by men. Assumes that patriarchy and the use of power is harmful to women. Some feminists also recognize social class and race as socially generated constructs that are used to oppress others.

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Feminist Research is often classified in the qualitative research family because:

It is used to generate new knowledge. Its purpose is to create social change. It argues against the top-down, hierarchal relationships associated with male-dominated knowledge by minimizing the social distance between researcher and subject. Respondents often participate in the research process. It focuses on the position in society of research subjects and the researcher. The perspectives or standpoint of the subject and researcher are central in data collection and analysis.
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The term standpoint refers to:

The perspectives or lived experiences of the researcher and his or her subjects. These perspectives vary based on the location of individuals in the social structure. Are their perspectives different from those with privileged positions in society. Is this standpoint associated with oppression based on social class, ethnicity/race, gender, sexual orientation etc. or some combination of these attributes.
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Designing a Qualitative Study

Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead. Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins. Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic.
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Qualitative Study Design cont.

Research questions that are too broad:
Does Buddhism account for the patience that seems to dominate the Thai world view?
How do leaders make their decisions?

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Qualitative Study Design cont.

Research questions better answered by quicker means:
What television programs do Brazilians watch most? Where can you buy postage stamps in Italy?

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Qualitative Study Design cont.

Examples of Qualitative Questions What do people in this setting have to know in order to do what they are doing? What is the story that can be told from these experiences? What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for the experience?

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Qualitative Sampling Strategies

No probability sampling

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Sampling Strategies cont.

Decisions about sampling and sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined.
individual people program, group organization or community genders, ethnic groups, older and younger

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Sampling Strategies cont.

Purposeful or Judgment Sampling
In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some Bernard, 2000:176 Key Informants are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge.
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Sampling Strategies cont.

Purposeful Sampling Strategies
Maximum variation Homogeneous Critical case Theory based Confirming and disconfirming cases

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Sampling Strategies cont.

Snowball or chain Extreme or deviant case Typical case Intensity Politically important cases Random purposeful

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Sampling Strategies cont.

Stratified purposeful Criterion Opportunistic Combination or mixed Convenience

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Qualitative Data Collection

Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument. Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders, video and photographic data Interviews must be transcribed.

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Fieldwork Strategies and Observations

In the fields of observation, chance favors the prepared mind. Louis Pasteur People only see what they are prepared to see. Ralph Waldo Emerson

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Fieldwork Observations
Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear. Practice writing descriptively Acquiring discipline in recording field notes Knowing how to separate detail from trivia to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter.
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Fieldwork Observations cont.

Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations. Reporting strengths and limitations of ones own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and selfdisclosure. Participant observer or onlooker or both

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Qualitative Interviewing
1. Informal conversational interview 2. Interview guide approach 3. Standardized open-ended interview 4. Closed, fixed-response interview

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Qualitative Interviewing cont.

Sequencing questions Use words that make sense to the people being interviewed. Ask truly open-ended questions Avoid questions which can be answered with a yes or no. One idea per question. Be careful with Why questions.
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Qualitative Data Analysis

When does analysis begin? During data collection. Thick description is the foundation for qualitative analysis and reporting. Organize the data. Read all the data and get a sense of the whole. Coding for recurring themes and categories

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Qualitative Data Analysis

Computer-assisted qualitative data management and analysis
Ethnograph NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo ATLAS.ti

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Qualitative Data Analysis

Coding data Finding Patterns Labeling Themes Developing Category Systems Looking for emergent patterns in the data

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References
Bernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

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