Work and Leisure

JC 2 General Paper Lecture

Contents

Evolution of work and the work ethic Classical views on work corresponding to societal changes The when, where and how of work Leisure and its impact on work Case studies

Death by work: Case studies in Japan and China Live to work: Case studies in Singapore and Sweden
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1. Evolution of work and the work ethic

Adapted from Historical Context of the Work Ethic 3 Roger B. Hill, 1996

The key socio-economic periods at a glance

Classical period Medieval period The rise of Capitalism

People Management and the Age of Information

Industrial Management

The Industrial Revolution

The Age of Empowerment?

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Classical period

Plato and Aristotle

made it clear that the purpose for which the majority of men worked was "in order that the minority, the elite, might engage in pure exercises of the mind--art, philosophy, and politics"

Classical period

Is work the means to leisure?

Plato: work was meant to allow superior people to enjoy the good life. Aristotle: freedom from the necessity to labour for a living

Medieval period

Work

Still perceived as punishment However, the positive connotation of earnings prevented one from being reliant on the charity of others.

Wealth

Recognized as an opportunity to assist those who might be less fortunate Work which produced wealth became acceptable.
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The rise of Capitalism

Centralization of government, the growth of trade, and the establishment of economically powerful towns, during the 15th century, provided alternative choices for subsistence, and the feudal system died out. This structure satisfied the economic interests of small-time businessmen and became institutionalized. Hard work brought respect and contributed to social order and wellbeing of the community. The dignity society attached to work brought respect for workers as well, and contempt for those who were idle or lazy, compared to past periods.

The rise of Capitalism

Rational theorists:

Work to earn a living; subsistence

Karl Marx:

Work to establish meaning in life

The rise of Capitalism

What is the role of the division of labour? Emile Durkheim:

Organic solidarity

Organization of labour market: labour is optimally distributed according to merit and expertise Assumption made: the meritocratic function will ensure a smooth-functioning society, since people are not discriminated from work due to non-work related reasons

Such workers are naturally happier in such a society.

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The rise of Capitalism

Is it ones duty to work?

Protestant Ethic: labour as religious duty Leading a good life in life, and after life

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Industrial Revolution

Economists warned of the poverty and decay that would befall the country if people failed to work hard, and moralists stressed the social duty of each person to be productive. Manual labour was replaced by machines and intensive division of labor came with the industrial age. Individual control over the quantity and methods of personal production began to be mechanized. In the factories, skill and craftsmanship were replaced by discipline and anonymity. Tradecraft gradually disappeared as it was replaced by new inventions and specialization of labour.

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Industrial Revolution

Henry Ford: work based on mass production

Manufacture of standardized products in huge volumes using machinery and unskilled labour Assembly line: routine, discipline and volume Deskilling the worker Scripted performances

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Industrial Management

Scientific management was conceived, predicated on specialization and division of jobs into simple tasks, often along a factorys conveyor belt. Scientific management was claimed to increase worker production and pay. It was therefore presumed to be beneficial to workers, as well as the company, since monetary gain was viewed as the primary motivating factor for both. In actual practice, such a style was found to be demeaning to human nature and did not raise workers proficiencies, as they were isolated from the entire production process.

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People Management and the Age of Information

The Behaviorist school of thought provides alternative theories to guide the management of workers, where scientific management failed. Contrary to the principles of scientific management, the behaviorists argue that workers are not intrinsically lazy.

For them, if the environment fails to provide a challenge, workers would became lazy, but if appropriate opportunities are provided, workers would become creative and motivated.

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People Management and the Age of Information

Industrial age jobs are seen as typically low-discretion, require little decision-making, and analyzed and broken into simple tasks which require very little thinking or judgment on the part of workers. Information age jobs, in contrast, are high-discretion and require considerable thinking and decision-making on the part of workers. Jobs in the manufacturing industry also become more technical and necessitate a higher level of thinking on the job, as machines are interfaced with computers and control systems become more complex.

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People Management and the Age of Information: really?

Frederick Taylor:

Work to maximize incomes

Ezra Vogel:

Work to perpetuate valued identities; reproduction of social order

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People Management and the Age of Information: really?

George Ritzer: work is Mcdonaldized

Efficient (best practices) Calculable (quantity) Predictable (standards) Controllable (processes) Irrationality of rationality

Unreasonable system in which people cannot always behave as human beings

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The Age of Empowerment?

Young people, in particular, enter the workforce with relatively good qualifications, and expect opportunities for advancement in their jobs. They anticipate that talent and hard work would be the basis for success rather than chance or luck. In essence, information age workers expect application of a positive work ethic to result in rewards, including the ability to positively effect their jobs.

Think! Would you consider your future job or career based on the level of satisfaction or the nature of the job?
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Is leisure the antithesis to work?

Leisure: the art of play as social lubricant

Relaxation (from the daily stresses of life) Catharsis (to expel anger in socially acceptable ways) Compensation (to express oneself amidst the dehumanizing aspects of work)

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Take a break!

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The when of work

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The when of work

Permutations

Full time work Part time work Flexible work Leave arrangements (maternal, paternal, parental) Time (e.g., concept of five-day work week) Scope (division of labour) Must time be allocated specifically for leisure, out of work?

Leisure

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Where to work?

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Where to work?

Location-based Off-location

Working from home

Small office, Home office (SOHO) Outsourcing and subcontracts E.g. Client in Singapore, Product made in England, Call Center in India

Working from elsewhere

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How to work?

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How to work?

Maximize potential at workplace Contributing to organizations success Propagating desirable values in society Enjoying process of goal attainment Establishing ownership of work Aligning oneself to personal ideals and aspirations

Minimize potential at workplace Quota restriction

Good work, relatively good pay

No need to exceed productivity to maximize returns Goldbricking

Bad work, relatively bad pay

Minimal effort to attain time-out within undesirable work

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Leisure

Some definitions

Freedom from occupation or business Activity that brings relaxation and peace of mind The time a person is not working or doing other duties

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Types of leisure activities

All non-active actions

include sleep and rest

Times when personal services are performed

washing, eating etc.

Relaxation in organised recreation

Sport, visiting the cinema etc. in specific locations

Visiting friends, relatives etc. in nonspecific locations
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Social activities

Main functions of leisure

Leisure fulfils important roles in our individual and interpersonal lives.

It provides entertainment and a relief from boredom. It is our natural desire for some time to play and facilitates social interaction. It is crucial for our mental and physical well-being as it relieves work-related stress and pressure and revitalises us. It is a status symbol as it fosters self-expression through the kind of leisure activities we engage in.
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Main functions of leisure

It improves productivity because when workers are in a relaxed mode, they can work more efficiently. It stimulates consumption in the economy as people participate in leisure activities. It enables one to maximise his potential at work or at play and leads to his holistic development. It enables one to broaden his outlook through appreciation of the arts and keep abreast of scientific and technological developments.

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What is constructive leisure?

Time is used for the benefit of ones emotional well-being. Leisure can be a tool to fight stress and tension in modern living and the choice of activity is up to the individual. e.g. keeping pets provides emotional solace for some while for others, gardening or do-it-yourself activities provide them with relaxation. Time that is used to take stock of our lives can manifest itself in many forms. e.g. for those with creative talent, it can take the form of a tangible piece of artwork while for others it is playing a game or listening to music.
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The role of leisure in work

Spillover effect Work experiences spill over into leisure and affect non-work attitudes Compensation for work through leisure Work experiences are compensated by choice of leisure activities Segmentation Choices of work and leisure are segmented and lived out independently

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The treatment of leisure in society

Consumption of leisure

Adversarial: Does an increase in leisure necessarily leads to a decrease in work? Mutually beneficial: Can work and leisure be complementary?

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Factors which affect leisure interests

Changing trends Improvements in facilities Economic affluence Higher educational attainment Changes in technology External/foreign influences Presence of a youthful population Stress on medical and health benefits
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Work and leisure

The nature of ones occupation does have a bearing on the use of ones leisure hours.

If the working hours are long and the work is physically an mentally onerous, there is little time for leisure. If the hours of work are moderate, there might be more opportunities for leisure.

Weary urban workers may find solace and mental relaxation in parks or nature reserves while sedentary workers may fulfil their need for physical exercises through organised games such as soccer, or through unorganised games like swimming or jogging.
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Take a break!

http://www.visionunlimited.co.uk/InspireHumo ur/ENTRIES/048.HTM (Scott Adams, creator of Dilbert)

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Death by work
Case Studies in Japan and China

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Case study : Karoshi in Japan

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Case study : Karoshi

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Foxconn suicides in China

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Swearing by work
Case studies in Singapore and Sweden

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Task 1: Framing an argument on work and leisure: Are people in todays society enjoying work-life balance?

Whats old

Number of hours? Conditions at the workplace? Societal expectations? Generational divide?

Take up one issue on the left-hand column and construct a topic sentence with regard to the above question.

Whats (relatively) new

Renegotiating the model of work Rejecting regimented hardships

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Work-Life Balance

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Work-Life Balance

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Tripartism- a viable model for work-life balance?

Click these links and take note of some initiatives that address worklife balance

http://www.mom.gov.sg/Documents/employmentpractices/Guidelines/2672_GuidelinesonBestWLPractices.pdf http://www.mom.gov.sg/Documents/employmentpractices/Guidelines/3079_20040823_NTAP_Guidelines_Final.pdf

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Work-Life Balance
Implementing work-life balance Involving middle managers in the process is the key to success, says Hawazi Daipi By Cassandra Chew

Middle managers are key to the success of work-life balance strategies in the workplace but are often left out of the process when it comes to implementing such measures. The involvement of line-managers and supervisors, in addition to that of bosses, makes a critical difference to the effectiveness of work-life strategies, Senior Parliamentary Secretary (Health and Manpower) Hawazi Daipi said on Thursday. 'An effectively implemented work-life strategy helps employees better meet their work demands and personal needs, which will, in turn, benefit the employer,' he added. 'From the employee's perspective, better work-life harmony means less tension between work and personal lives, and a better quality of life overall, resulting in improved ability to perform at their best at work.' Credit Suisse buys into this philosophy. Recognising that not all middle managers were comfortable facilitating such changes at work, it helps them ease into the role in ways such as mentoring, and interaction with workers at networking events. 'Baby boomers may not necessarily know how to manage younger workers of today. But if we expose them to different ways of leadership, they will be much more open,' said Ms Niki Kesoglou, a regional director at the international bank.
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Task 2: Gathering information to substantiate your argument: Are people in todays society enjoying work-life balance?

From your research and Hawazis comments, what are some initiatives that address or improve work-life balance in Singapore? What is your view on these initiatives? Do they genuinely improve work-life balance in your society? (slides 44-47 and your contextual knowledge) OR Are these initiatives mere lip service? (slides 39-41 and your contextual knowledge) Such case studies (and subsequent evaluation) will be useful to exemplify your assertions.
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Lagom!

English equivalent: just right Should work be tied to maximum output, maximum happiness or Lagom?

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A review of Swedens policies on work-life balance

Review this document at http://agingandwork.b c.edu/documents/GPB 10_Sweden.pdf Comparing Singapore and Sweden
1. 2.

Similarities? Differences?

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Task 3: Assessing perspectives in argumentation: Are people in todays society enjoying work-life balance?

Assess the topic sentence you have crafted and elaboration done in task 1 (slide 43) and task 2 (slide 48) respectively.

It is important to note that examples by themselves do not make your argument compelling, but your assessment of these examples does. One way to inject personal voice in your argumentation is through perspective-taking and assessment.

Now, having assessed both Singapores and Swedens cases, what is your analysis?
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Task 3: Using examples intelligently: techniques to present your personal voice after evidencing
Corroboration
Do both case studies corroborate your argumentation? Use the second example to reinforce the first example, to support your argumentation in todays society.

Comparison
Does one case study appear to be more compelling than the other? Argue which one is more valid, and explain why that particular case is more representative in todays society.

Disproving
Are both case studies flawed? (e.g. ideal in theory, flawed in practice) Argue why evidence presented in one and/or both case studies is/are flawed, and propose counter-evidence to support your argumentation, with regard to todays society.

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Task 4: The finished product

Put together tasks 1, 2 and 3! You should have a complete essay paragraph on:

A topic sentence and some elaboration of the issue you have chosen with regard to work-life balance An example of an initiative from MOM, which attempts to address work-life balance An evaluation of an initiative based on the Swedish case study, for which you would have a) Corroborated, 2) Compared or 3) Disproved with counter-evidence to demonstrate your personal voice

This is one way you may make use of examples to inject your personal voice within your essay.
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Task 5: Past year questions for your consideration and practice

1.

Discuss the view that children always suffer when both parents work. (Nov 1998) A life of total luxury - dream or nightmare? (Nov 2000) I am a millionaire. That is my religion. To what extent has the pursuit of wealth become the modern goal? (Nov 2000) The most worthwhile jobs are those with the least financial gains. Do you agree? (Nov 2001) The family has suffered at the expense of career in Singaporean society. Is this a fair comment? (Nov 2003) Instead of speeding up the pace of life, we should be slowing it down. What do you think? (Nov 2005) Mass production inevitably means a loss of craftsmanship and quality. Is this true in your society? (Nov 2007)
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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Acknowledgements

R. Hill (1996). Historical Context of the Work Ethic. Anthony Giddens (1993). Sociology. Pp 490-523. M. Haralambos. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. Pp 228-277. Worlds executive Digest (1983). The Changing Concepts of Work and Leisure. Pp 6-23. Cultural, Social and Leisure Activities in Singapore. Census monograph no.3 (1990). 100 Essays from TIME. Pp 384-400. The Straits Times. Retrieved from http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Singapore/Story/STIStory_571388.html.

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