Nervous System

CNS
BRAIN

PNS
CRANIAL NERVES SPINAL NERVES

ANS
SYMPATHETIC

SPINAL CORD

PARASYMPATHETIC

Definition:
Unpaired, bilaterally symmetrical structures extending along the longitudinal axis of the midsagittal plane of the body. Structures arising directly from the neural tube.

Includes:
Brain Spinal cord

Definition: Made up of transmission pathways carrying information between the CNS and external/internal environments. Afferent (sensory) pathways: Carry information to the CNS. Efferent (motor) pathways: Carry information from the CNS.

Includes: Cranial nerves (12 pairs). Spinal nerves (31 pairs).

May be considered a subdivision of the PNS. Entirely motor. Innervates smooth muscle and glands (viscera).

Sympathetic system (fight or flight): Also called thoracolumbar. Parasympathetic system (feed or breed): Also called craniosacral.

Cell body: Trophic unit Perikaryon Dendrites: Receptive unit Axon: Conductive unit

Neuron Anatomy

Cell body
Nucleus
Large nucleolus

Figure 7.4a
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Slide 7.9b

Neuron Anatomy
Extensions outside the cell body
Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body Axons conduct impulses away from the cell body (only 1!)
Figure 7.4a
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Slide 7.10

That part of a neuron that encloses the nucleus and other organelles necessary to maintain and repair the neuron.

Branches off the cell body that carry information to the cell body. Usually several to many. Relatively short. Often branched. Have receptors for neurotransmitters. Conduct local potentials.

Carries information to another neuron or muscle cell. Often relatively long. Single (one per neuron). Conducts action potential

Ends in short branched processes called telodendria. May have collateral branches. Cell membrane (= axolemma). Cytoplasm = (axoplasm).

Covered by neurolemma: Made up of Schwann cells. Often myelinated: Myelin is formed by Schwann cells. Note: axon is the only part of a neuron that is ever myelinated.

Nucleus: Aggregation of dendrites and nerve cell bodies in the CNS. Ganglion: Aggregation of dendrites and nerve cell bodies in the PNS.

White matter: Areas of myelinated axons. Gray matter: Areas of unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, and dendrites.

Definition:

Composite structure that allows two neurons or a neuron and a muscle cell to talk to each other.

Presynaptic membrane: With synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. Synaptic cleft: Postsynaptic membrane: With receptors for neurotransmitters. Monosynaptic pathways. Polysynaptic pathways.

Afferent (sensory) pathways: Somatic. Visceral (splanchnic). Efferent (motor) pathways: Somatic. Visceral (splanchnic). Association neurons (interneurons).

Schwann cells Astrocytes Microglial cells Oligodendrocytes Ependymal cells

Derived from neural crest cells. Myelinate axons in the PNS.

Derived from embryonic mesenchyme. May transform into phagocytes within CNS.

Nerve Fiber Coverings

Schwann cells produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion

Nodes of Ranvier gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

Figure 7.5
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Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neurons many extensions from the cell body

Figure 7.8a

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Structural Classification of Neurons

Bipolar neurons one axon and one dendrite

Figure 7.8b

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Structural Classification of Neurons

Unipolar neurons have a short single process leaving the cell body

Figure 7.8c

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How Neurons Function (Physiology)

Irritability ability to respond to stimuli
Conductivity ability to transmit an impulse The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell
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Starting a Nerve Impulse

Depolarization a stimulus depolarizes the neurons membrane A deploarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane

The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron

Figure 7.9ac
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The Action Potential

If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration
This action requires ATP
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Nerve Impulse Propagation

The impulse continues to move toward the cell body Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
Figure 7.9ce
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Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons

Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve
Neurotransmitter is released from a nerves axon terminal The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter An action potential is started in the dendrite
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How Neurons Communicate at Synapses

Figure 7.10
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Fig. 48.20

cerebrum

corpus callosum

thalamus
Pineal gland

hypothalamus cerebellum pituitary pons spinal cord medulla oblongata

Involved with higher brain functions. Processes sensory information. Initiates motor functions. Integrates information.

The cerebrum is divided into frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.

Frontal lobe.

Contains the primary motor cortex.

Parietal lobe.

Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Fig. 48.25
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Integrative Function of the Association Areas.

Much of the cerebrum is given over to association areas.

Areas where sensory information is integrated and assessed and motor responses are planned.

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The brain exhibits plasticity of function.

For example, infants with intractable epilepsy may have an entire cerebral hemisphere removed.
The remaining hemisphere can provide the function normally provided by both hemispheres.

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Max

Hearing words

Seeing words

Min
Speaking words Generating words

Language and Speech.

Brocas area.
Usually located in the left hemispheres frontal lobe Responsible for speech production.

Wernickes area.
Usually located in the right hemispheres temporal lobe Responsible for the comprehension of speech.

Other speech areas are involved generating verbs to match nouns, grouping together related words, etc.

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Memory and Learning.

Short-term memory stored in the frontal lobes. The establishment of long-term memory involves the hippocampus.

The transfer of information from short-term to

long-term memory.
Is enhanced by repetition (remember that when you are preparing for an exam). Influenced by emotional states mediated by the amygdala. Influenced by association with previously stored information.
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Different types of long-term memories are stored in different regions of the brain. Memorization-type memory can be rapid.

Primarily involves changes in the strength of existing nerve connections.

Learning of skills and procedures is slower.

Appears to involves cellular mechanisms similar to those involved in brain growth and development.

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Human Consciousness.

Brain imaging can show neural activity associated with:

Conscious perceptual choice Unconscious processing Memory retrieval Working memory.

Consciousness appears to be a wholebrain phenomenon.

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Relay center for sensory tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum. Contains centers for sensation of pain, temperature, and touch. Involved with emotions and alerting or arousal mechanisms.

The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.

The reticular activating system (RAS) of the reticular formation.

Regulates sleep and arousal.
Acts as a

sensory filter.

Fig. 48.21
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Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns of electrical activity in the brain that can be recorded as an electroencephalogram (EEG).
Most dreaming occurs during

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.

Fig. 48.22b-d
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Regulates:
autonomic control center- blood pressure, rate and force of heart contraction, center for emotional response and behavior body temperature water balance and thirst sleep/wake cycles appetite sexual arousal control of endocrine functioning: Acts on the pituitary gland through the release of neurosecretions.

Hypothalamus

Midbrain Cerebellar peduncles

thalamus

Tectum Superior colliculi Inferior colliculi Substantia nigra Red nuclei

Posterior

Red nucleus Substantia nigra

Anterior

Contains ascending and descending tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus. Reflex center for eye muscles. Also involved with processing visual and auditory information (connects head movements with visual and auditory stimuli).

Connects the two halves of the cerebellum. Regulates breathing.

 Composed of nerve tracts to and from the brain (these tracts cross over left to right and right to left) May be regarded as an extension of the spinal cord Almost all of the cranial nerves arise from this region

Contains control centers for many subconscious activities Respiratory rate Heart rate Arteriole constriction Swallowing Hiccupping Coughing Sneezing

On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fat Voracious German Viewed A Hop

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Olfactory- smell Optic- vision Oculomotor- 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles Trochlear- extrinsic eye muscles Trigeminal- sensory fibers to the face and motor fibers to the chewing muscles 6. Abducens- controls eye muscles that turn the eye laterally 7. Facial- facial expression 8. Vestibulocochlear- hearing and balance 9. Glosopharyngeal- tongue and pharynx 10.Vagus- parasympathetic control of heart, lungs & abdominal organs 11.Accessory- accessory part of vagus nerve, neck & throat muscles 12.Hypoglossal- moves muscles under tongue

Olfactory Optic

Oculomotor
Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial

Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal

Protection of the Central Nervous System

Scalp and skin
Skull and vertebral column Meninges

Figure 7.16a
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Meninges
Dura mater
Double-layered external covering

Periosteum attached to surface of the skull

Meningeal layer outer covering of the brain

Folds inward in several areas

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Cerebrospinal Fluid
Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
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Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17a

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Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17b
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Blood Brain Barrier

Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body Excludes many potentially harmful substances

Useless against some substances

Fats and fat soluble molecules Respiratory gases Alcohol Nicotine Anesthesia
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Slide 7.48