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Chapter 5:

Structuralism

Titchener: Structuralism

Central task of psychology: analysis of conscious experience

These conscious experiences are dependent on a person

Titchener: Structuralism

Psychology is different from other sciences because its subject matter requires the presence of a human being

Other sciences subject matter is independent of experiencing persons

The content of conscious experience

Structural psychology: pure science

Only legitimate purpose:

to discover the facts (structure) of the mind

Applied aspects are not needed, and not scientific Only appropriate subjects:

normal adult humans

The content of conscious experience

Titchener warned against stimulus error:

Confusing our human experiences of events (mental processes) as the actual events

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The content of conscious experience

Introspection: Self-observation

Trained observers Used detailed, qualitative, subjective reports Of mental activities during the act of introspecting

Opposed Wundt's approach


Titchener interested in elements/parts, not wholes Much more mechanisitc than Wundt His observers were passive, impartial, mechanical instruments recording stimuli

The content of conscious experience

Titcheners experimental approach

Experiment = an observation which had

Frequent repetition Strict isolation (control) Vary observations widely

The content of conscious experience


Examples of Some Experiments
1.

Reagents swallowed a tube,

- Hot water poured down, experience described by reagent - Repeated with cold water

2. Reagents wrote down descriptions of the sensations of urinating and defecating 3. Reagents made notes of sensations during sex, attached devices to measure physiological responses

Elements of consciousness

Proposed three elementary states of consciousness

Sensations:

sounds, sights, smells, etc lead to perceptions ideas made from sensations, memories emotion

Images:

Affective states

Elements of consciousness

Each element could be categorized

Quality:

attribute differentiating each element from the other , e.g., cold, red strength, weakness, loudness, or brightness of sensation

Intensity:

Duration:

sensations path over time


refers to amount of attention given to element

Clearness

Elements of consciousness

Characteristics of mental elements

Discovered 44,000 basic and irreducible elements of sensation

Each is conscious Each is distinct from all others


Each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas

Elements of consciousness

1.

Defined three essential problems for psychology


2. 3.

Reduce conscious processes to simplest components (the bulk of his work) Determine laws by which elements associated Connect the elements with their physiological conditions

Same aims as natural sciences

Later in his Career

Stopped talking about elements, and became more interested in the dimensions you could use to categorize elements (quality, etc.)
Considered changing name of movement (and method of collecting data) to existential psychology, which would emphasize experience as it occurs, without analysis or breaking it down to elements Died before any real changes were made to his system

Criticisms of structuralism

Methodology:

Introspection

Had been attacked for a century or more Titchener could not give an exact definition of what introspection meant Freud proposes the unconscious, which said that part of our mind cannot be consciously experienced, and greatly affects our behavior
Kant, Comte, Maudsley

Sterility / artificiality of lab experiments New specialties did not fit with Titcheners definition of psychology (child psychology, animal psychology)

Contributions of structuralism

Subject matter clearly defined Research methods: good science Introspection remains a viable method Impact on cognitive psychology Strong base against which others could rebel

Chapter 6:

Precursors to Functionalism

Movement from acceptance of biblical creation story to curiosity about


Many new species discovered: how could they all fit in Noah's ark? Chimpanzees and orangutans available for viewing Skeleton of gorilla and human strikingly similar Fossils and bones of extinct species found Constant change in everyday life; Change was the order of the day Growing domination of science; industrial revolution

Darwins life

HMS Beagle journey: 1831-1836


Worked on his theory of evolution for 22 years Problems with physical health caused by anxiety Alfred Russel Wallace: wrote Darwin about a theory of evolution similar to Darwins that Wallace developed in 3 days
Darwins ethical dilemma

Darwins life

HMS Beagle journey: 1831-1836


Worked on his theory of evolution for 22 years Problems with physical health caused by anxiety Alfred Russel Wallace: wrote Darwin about a theory of evolution similar to Darwins that Wallace developed in 3 days
Darwins ethical dilemma

Darwins life

Darwin took friends suggestion to have Wallaces paper and portion of his forthcoming book presented at scientific meeting on same day that Darwins son was buried Darwin overwhelmed with new physical illness Wallace not bitter over Darwins fame; Instead was happy to have brushed fame and content to have unconsciously spurred Darwin to complete his book

What Darwin said about himself

Not clever, limited ability to follow abstract thought Poor critic: admired work upon 1st reading; only after reflection perceived deficits Memory extensive, yet hazy Careful, astute, industrious observer and collector of facts Love of natural science Motivation to explain the observed, and to group facts under general laws Hypothesis generation: free mind open to modification Ample leisure; no need to earn income

Darwins life

Darwins other work

1871: the descent of man

Evidence for human evolution from lower forms of life Emphasized similarity between animal and human processes

1872: the expression of the emotions in man

and animals

Expressions descended from behaviors that originally had a practical function Based on his sons developmental stages

1877: A biographical sketch of an infant;

The Theory of Evolution

There is variation among members of a species This variability is inheritable Each member of a species participates in a struggle for survival Only the fittest survive Natural selection: process that leads to survival of organisms which adapt to the environment; those that can not adapt die
Generalized from Lamarck's and Malthus observations and principles to form his ideas

Recent Data

The finches beaks: evolution at work


Finches evolution occurred quicker than Darwin predicted Severe drought: food supply = large, tough spiky seeds

Only the 15% of finches with thickest beak could open seeds; many with slender beaks couldnt and died Thicker beaks = tool for adaptation Offspring inherited that characteristic; 4-5% thicker beaks Adaptation in one generation Rain and floods: large seeds swept away; Only small ones left Same cycle but reverse outcome as above: slender beaks a survival advantage Only the most fit in a given environment lived

Protests to Evolution

Evolution as a challenge to religion


Theory thought to negate Christian God Laws about teaching evolution in schools 1972, Tenn minister

Darwins theory breeds corruption, lust, immorality, greed, and such acts of criminal depravity as drug addiction, war, and atrocious acts of genocide

The white supremacy argument

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)


Social Darwinism: application of the theory of evolution to human nature and society

Coined the phrase survival of the fittest all aspects of universe evolved, including human traits and social institutions Promoted individualism and a laissez-faire economic system; opposed government interference Individuals and institutions that fail to adapt should be allowed to perish Utopian view: human perfection inevitable if nothing interferes with the natural order

Myth of male superiority

Derivative of variability hypothesis based on Darwinian ideas Hypothesis: the notion that men show a wider range and variation of physical and mental development than women; The abilities of women are seen as more average. Therefore, it was argued, women

Less likely to benefit from education Less likely to achieve intellectually Had less evolved brains than men Showed a smaller range of talents than men

Led to common acceptance of inequality between sexes

Darwins influence on psychology


Hypothesis: continuity in mental functioning between humans and lower animals Implied that study animal behavior vital to understanding human behavior Goal of psychology became how organism functioned in adapting Methods and techniques were broadened in scope Increased focus on individual differences and their measurement

Animal psychology and the development of functionalism

Before Darwin: animals considered


automata

After Darwin: the expression of the

emotions in man and animals Continuity between humans and animals Search for evidence of intelligence in animals Human emotional behavior: inheritance of behavior once useful to animals

Individual differences: Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Individual differences

The topic was considered inappropriate for psychology by Wundt and Titchener Had been examined by Weber, Fechner, Helmhotz

Galtons life

Estimated IQ = 200 Diverse, novel ideas and inventions Youngest of 9 children Wealthy family Pressured by father to study medicine; Didnt like it Entered Cambridge university to study mathematics Traveled extensively; Wrote popular book, the art of

travel

Cousin Charles Darwin published on the origin of species: Galton fascinated by theory of evolution, which guided his subsequent work

Mental inheritance

1869: hereditary genius


Eminent men have eminent sons Specific forms of genius inherited Founded eugenics: improve inherited human traits through artificial selection Applied statistical concepts to heredity problems Eminence not a function of opportunity

Statistical methods

Quetelet: first to apply statistical methods and normal curve to biological and social data Galton

Assumed similar results true of mental characteristics Developed mean and standard deviation Produced correlation measure

Modern derivatives: methods for validity, reliability, factor analysis

Pearsons r: for Galtons discovery of regression toward the mean

Mental tests

Originated by Galton, but term from Cattell Assumed: intelligence can be measured in terms of sensory capacities Developed his own instruments His tests were prototypes for standard psychology lab equipment 1884: established anthropometric laboratory Aim: the definition of the range of human capacities of the entire British population To determine its collective mental resources His data Statistically reliable (1985) Provided information on developmental trends

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