REFRIGERANTS

Refrigeration Technology
Part 3
The Refrigerant and Other Substances for Refrigeration
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Part 3 .The Refrigerant and Other Substances for Refrigeration
Chapter7.Introduction of Refrigerants Chapter8. Environmental Friendly Refrigerants
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Chapter7. Introduction of Refrigerants
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Refrigerant in vapor compression refrigeration Refrigeration Characteristics of refrigerants Some Important Physical/Chemical Properties of Refrigerants Nomenclature of Refrigerants Secondary Refrigerants References
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7-1.Refrigerant in vapor compression refrigeration

The working substance in a refrigeration system is called the refrigerant. There are lots of refrigerants, including gas, liquid and solid refrigerants.
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There are many natural and artificial substances have been used in mechanical driven and thermal driven vapor compression refrigeration systems. In lithium bromide vapor absorption refrigeration system, H2O is used as a refrigerant and LiBr is an absorbent ; in NH3 vapor absorption refrigeration system, NH3 is a refrigerant; is an absorbent. Water H2O is also used as a refrigerant both in vapor adsorption and in vapor jet refrigeration cycles. In mechanical driven vapor compression refrigeration, NH3,CO2, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), azeotropic and zeotropic mixtures, inorganic compounds, hydrocarbons, and others are used as refrigerants.
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7-2.Refrigeration Characteristics of refrigerants
The pressure- enthalpy diagram is the usual graphic means of presenting refrigerant properties and its cycles. A typical vapor compression refrigeration cycle has been shown in Fig.2-1.
Fig 7-1, The saturated pressure with temperature of some refrigerants
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1. Appropriate temperature and pressure characteristics
The saturated pressure with temperature is an important property of refrigerant. 1) It is desired for the pressure at evaporating temperature to be above atmospheric, to avoid inward leakage of air.
2)The pressure at the corresponding condensing temperature should not be excessive, so that extra strength high-side equipment is not required.
3) Low compression ratio is desirable, because the degree of complication and difficulty of a compressor increases directly with the compression ratio. 4) Discharge temperature of compressor should not be excessive, to avoid problems as breakdown or dilution of the lubricating oil, decomposition of the refrigerant, or formation of contaminants such as sludge or acids. All of these can lead to compressor damage.
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2. High latent heat of vaporization and low specific volume of the refrigerant at the entry to compressor
A high latent heat of vaporization and a low specific volume of the refrigerant at entry to the compressor are desirable for smaller equipment and pipe size at given cooling capacity. High latent heat means there is a high refrigeration effect. For example, R11 has a much larger specific volume of suction vapor of compressor than those of refrigerants of R22, R502 and R717. That means it requires a higher volumetric flow rate to produce the same amount of cooling capacity. Therefore, R11 is usually used with centrifugal compressors because they are good at handing large volumetric flow rate. wu wei-dong
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3. Lower compression work
In order to get high COP, both high refrigeration effect and low compression work must be considered in combination.
For example, R717 (ammonia ) has a refrigerating effect q1 much larger than other refrigerants, but its compression work w is also high, as a result, COP of ammonia has the same order of magnitude as that of the other refrigerants.
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7-3.Some Important Physical/Chemical Properties of Refrigerants
Any substance which has appropriate thermal properties can be used as a refrigerant, but in practice the choice is limited by many factors such as toxicity, flammability, chemical stability, and the behaviors of the refrigerant with lubricating oil, water and construction materials.
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1.Safety group classification
In the Standard 34, the refrigerants have been classified into safety groups in the following ways: The safety classifications consist of two alphanumeric characters (e.g. A2 or B1). In which the capital letter indicates the toxicity and the Arabic numeral denotes the flammability.
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(1) Toxicity classification
Refrigerants are assigned to one of two classes: A or B based on the following exposure:
Class A signifies refrigerants for which toxicity has not been identified at concentrations less than or equal to 400 ppm, based on data used to determine Threshold Limit Value-Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) or consistent indices.
Class B signifies refrigerants for which there is evidence of toxicity at concentrations below 400 ppm, based on data used to determine TLV-TWA or concentration indices. wu wei-dong
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(2) Flammability Classification
Refrigerants are assigned to one of three classes: 1, 2 or 3 based on flammability.
Class 1 indicates refrigerants that do not show flame propagation when tested in air at 101kpa and 21.
Class 2 signifies refrigerants having a lower flammability limit (LFL) concentration of above 0.10 kg/m3 in air at 21 and 101 kpa and a heat of combustion below 19,000 kJ/kg.
Class 3 indicates refrigerants that are highly flammable, as identified by an LFL concentration less than or equal to 0.10 kg/m3 at 21 and 101 kPa, or a heat of combustion greater than or equal to 19,000 kJ/kg. wu wei-dong
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By combining toxicity and flammability criteria, a matrix is obtained which classifies a refrigerant into class A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, or B3 as shown in Tab.7-4.
Tab.7-4, Safety classification of some refrigerants
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3. Chemical Stability
A refrigerant must be chemically stable in the temperature range it is exposed to. Chemical stability means that the refrigerant should not dissociate at the temperatures encountered in the refrigerator. Decomposition can result in the production of contaminants such as acids, sludge, or non-condensable gases. Chemical stability also means that the refrigerant should not decompose at the catalytic conditions by the presence of oil, water, metallic impurities.
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4. Compatibility with Construction Materials
A refrigerant should not react chemically with any materials it encounters in the system. The principal incompatibilities consist in ammonia and copper, and methyl chloride and aluminum. Ammonia can be used with iron, steel and aluminum, and methyl chloride with iron, steel and copper. The fluorinated refrigerants can be used with iron, steel, copper and aluminum. However, alloying elements in aluminum, particularly magnesium and manganese, occasionally give trouble and should be avoided.
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The refrigerant and its lubricant should be compatible with the compressor materials, piping, sealing devices and others. Materials should be qualified for use by performing compatibility testing under the range of conditions that will be encountered during use. The compatibility testing usually includes chemical and thermal stability of refrigerant-lubricant mixtures with metals, compatibilities of refrigerantlubricant mixtures with motor materials, elastomers and engineering plastics.
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5. Relation of lubricating oil and refrigerant
In most refrigerating machines oil is used not only to lubricate the bearings and running surfaces, but also to prevent refrigerant leakage. A refrigerant should not compromise the lubricating quality of the oil, either by chemical or physical action. Liquid ammonia and oil are almost immiscible, so an oil separator is usually used.
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However, most CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs are miscible with lubricating oils to a relatively high proportion. The solubility of refrigerant vapor in oil is important in the crankcase of the compressor. Dissolved refrigerant can dilute the oil and reduces its viscosity.
Refrigerant-oil miscibility is desirable to a degree that oil can be carried to wearing parts, but excessive miscibility can result in ineffective lubrication.
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6. Behavior of refrigerant with water
Water has very different miscibilities with different refrigerants, and this fact has an important impact on the operation of refrigeration systems.
Refrigerant grade anhydrous ammonia is a clear, colorless liquid or gas, free from visible impurities.
It is at least 99.95 percent pure ammonia.

Water is miscible with ammonia in all proportions, and forms solutions with very low freezing points. Water is never therefore deposited as ice inside the system.
Ammonia, especially in the presence of moisture, reacts with and corrodes copper, zinc, and many alloys.
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On the other hand, the solubility of water in refrigerants of CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs is minute.
It is only about 0.0026% by mass at 0 for R12, and about 0.06% for R22, therefore any water in the system above the small amount which can be dissolved by the refrigerant, must be present as free water. This can freeze wherever the temperature drops to 0. The ice could block the orifice of the expansion valve or capillary tube.
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7-4. Nomenclature of Refrigerants

1. History of refrigerant nomenclature
The naming system was firstly developed only for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by T. Midgley, Jr. and A. L. Henne in 1929, and further refined by J. D. Park. The number was originally part of the registered trade name, but was later donated to the industry by Du Pont in order to avoid confusion and proliferation of different numbers for the same product. Originally, organic molecules that contained chlorine and fluorine were all referred to as CFCs. wu wei-dong
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Today, the group is subdivided into CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs . The naming system is developed to all refrigerants then. The full nomenclature system has been formalized by the American Society of Heating Refrigeration & Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) under ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1992. The specified ANSI/ASHRAE prefixes were FC ( FluoroCarbon ), or R ( Refrigerant ), but today most are prefixed by more specific classifications - such as CFC, HCFC, and HFC. This internationally recognised system of numbering refrigerants is somewhat obscure, but straightforward in application .
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2. The fluorinated derivatives of the saturated hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons:CH4, C2H6,C3H8 , .CaH2a+2,
Standard nomenclature of fluorinated derivatives of the saturated hydrocarbons:

C a H b Cl c Fd is denoted
R (a 1)(b 1)(d )
The refrigerants are numbered with an R-, followed by 2-5 numbers and / or letters, which reflect its chemical composition given by the rules of the fluorocarbons numbering system.
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Isomers are identified with lower cases (ex R 134a). The first digit is one unit lower than the number of carbon atoms in the molecule which is (a-1). If the molecule contains only one carbon atom, the first digit is omitted. The second digit is one unit greater than the number of hydrogen atoms in the molecule which is (b+1). The third digit is equal to the number of fluorine atoms in the molecule, which is (d).
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3. The unsaturated hydrocarbons and their halogenated derivatives
assigned 1000 series numbers

Unsaturated hydrocarbons such asC2H4 , C3H6 , C4H8 , . CaHb, Where b 2a 2
Standard nomenclature of halogenated derivatives of unsaturated hydrocarbons:

C a H b Cl c Fd is denoted
R1( a 1)(b 1)(d )
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The 1000 series has been assigned to unsaturated hydrocarbons and their halogenated derivatives. The first digit 1is the number of carbon to carbon double bonds; The second digit is one less than the number of carbon (C) atoms which is (a-1); The third digit is one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms which is (b+1);
The fourth digit is the number of fluorine (F) atoms which is (d).
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4. Zeotropic
blends assigned 400-series numbers
R4xx
Azeotrope : A liquid mixture of two or more substances that retains the same composition in the vapor state as in the liquid state when distilled or partially evaporated under a certain pressure. Zeotrope (also known as a non-azeotropic mixture): The concentrations of the liquid and the vapor phase are never equal. This creates a temperature glide during phase change (at which point the concentrations of the vapor and the liquid are continually changing). Zeotropic mixtures are the most common type of refrigerant blend. An example of a zeotropic mixture is ammonia and water. wu wei-dong
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Near-azeotropic :
For a near-azeotropic mixture, the concentrations of vapor and liquid at a given temperature and pressure differ only slightly. Most azeotropic refrigerant mixtures become near-azeotropic when the pressure or temperature is varied from the azeotrope point. R-410A (which is also known as AZ-20 under the Allied Signal patent) is a near-azeotropic mixture of R-32 and R-125 (50%/50% of mass percent).
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Zeotropes are designated by a three digit number beginning with the number 4.
For example the 60/40 weight % mixture of R-12 and R-114 would be R-400 (60/40).
Zeotropes having the same components with different amounts (percent by mass), an uppercase letter shall be added as a suffix. The numbers are in chronological order of the refrigerants approval by ASHRAE. Examples:

R407A (R32/R125/R134a (20/40/40)) R407B (R32/R125/R134a (10/70/20)) R407C (R32/R125/R134a (23/25/52)) R407D (R32/R125/R134a (15/15/70)) R407E (R32/R125/R134a (25/15/60))
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5. Azeotropic blends assigned 500-series numbers R5xx

An azeotrope is defined as a point at which the concentration of the liquid and the vapor phase are the same for a given temperature and pressure. Some mixtures have more than one azeotrope at a fixed pressure or temperature, but this is uncommon. At an azeotrope, a mixture behaves like a single-constituent system. Azeotropes are designated by a three digit number beginning with the number 5. Examples:

R500(R12/152a(73.8/26.2)) R-502 (R22/ R115(48.8/51.2)) R507 (R125/R143a (50/50))
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6. Cyclic compounds assigned RC-series numbers RCxxx
If the compound is cyclic, then the number is prefixed with "C". Example:
RC316 :C4Cl2F6; RC317 : C4ClF7; RC318: C4F8.
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7. Organic compounds assigned 600-series numbers R6xx
Miscellaneous organic refrigerants are assigned arbitrary numbers in the 600 series.
This includes hydrocarbon refrigerants that cannot be identified by the regular numbering system .
Examples: R600: butane: CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 R601: isobutene: CH (CH 3 ) 3 R610: ethyl ether: C 2 H 5 OC 2 H 5 wu wei-dong
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8. Inorganic compounds blends assigned 700-series numbers R7xx
Inorganic refrigerants are allocated to the 700 series, using the molecular weight prefixed by the number 7. Lower case suffices are added to denote decreasing symmetry in isomers, or to denote inorganic gases with the same molecular weight.
Examples:

R717 corresponds to ammonia NH3 which has a molecular mass of 17; R718 corresponds to water; R729 corresponds to air; R744: carbon dioxide: CO2; R744A: nitrous oxide: N2O
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9. Classification of CFCS, HCFCs,HFCs, PFCs, HCs and NIK
The name chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) is applied to a substance formed by replacing all of the hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon molecule with chlorine and fluorine (or bromine). Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are similar to CFCs, but they are only partially halogenated and therefore retain some hydrogen. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are formed by partially fluorinating hydrocarbons. They retain some hydrogen and are totally chlorine free.
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Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are fully fluorinated hydrocarbons. They are very stable, have excellent fire suppressing properties, but have very long atmospheric lifetimes. Hydrocarbons (HCs) are naturally occurring organic substances. They are generally stable and non-reactive with the exceptions of their flammability and their ability to react with halogens.
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7-5. Secondary Refrigerants
In some vapor compression refrigeration systems the cooling effect is directly applied to the bodies to be refrigerated from evaporators, which is known as direct expansion. In many other cases the refrigeration may be needed are away from the evaporator, or that the evaporator can not setup to the body to be refrigerated, secondary refrigerants are used to distribute the refrigeration.
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In this type of arrangement, the secondary refrigerant is cooled by the evaporator and is then the cooled secondary refrigerant is pumped to the place where refrigeration is wanted as shown in Fig.7-5.
In these cases the refrigerant inside the evaporator of the refrigeration system is also called the primary refrigerant.
Fig.7-5, The secondary refrigerant used for distribute refrigeration
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The secondary refrigerant must remain liquid at the temperature desired. A good secondary refrigerant is expected to: have a sufficiently low freezing point at a not-too-high concentration; be stable and non-corrosive; be inexpensive; have good thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics.
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Water For air conditioning installations, water is a suitable secondary refrigerant. Chilled water at about 6-7 is produced in the refrigeration plant room and distributed to unit coolers or other forms of heat exchanger throughout the building. Water is also used frequently as a secondary refrigerant in industrial and food refrigeration.
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Brines- Solutions of inorganic salts in water Brine is a name given to a solution by dissolving various salts into water. The freezing point of brine is lower than that of pure water, and the freezing point decreases as the concentration of the salt until the eutectic point is reached
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Pure organic liquids and their aqueous solutions The freezing point of ethylene glycol aqueous solution at 55% by volume is . The eutectic of propylene glycol aqueous solution is at 60% by volume and its freezing point at 59% by volume is . They are non-corrosive and non-toxic but more expensive.
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References
1. Pita, E.G., Refrigeration-Principles and systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, 1984 Gosney, W.B., Principles of Refrigeration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1982 Stoecker, W.F., Jones, J.W., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, USA, 1982 Koelat, P.C., Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, design and application, the McMillan Press Ltd., London, England, 1992 http://www.epa.gov/Ozone/snap/refrigerants/background.html
2.
3. 4. 5.
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6.
7. 8.
9. 10.
Lommers, C.A., Air conditioning and refrigeration industry refrigerant selection guide (Seventh Edition) ,2003, The Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air conditioning and Heating Inc (AIRAH), Melbourne, http://www.airah.org.au http://www2.dupont.com/Refrigerants/en_CA/products/understanding.html ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2001, Designation and Safety Classification of RefrigerantsThe American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)2001 http://www.iifiir.org/2endossiers_fiches_classification.htm Classification of refrigerants, International Institute of Refrigeration, 2007 http://=www.iifiir.org/en/1027 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2007, Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants; Approved by the ASHRAE Standards Committee on June 23, 2007, by the ASHRAE Board of Directors on June 27, 2007, and by the American National Standards Institute on June 28, 2007.
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Chapter8. Environmental Friendly Refrigerants
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1. Mechanism of ozone depletion by CFC
The two chlorofluoromethanes CF2Cl2 and CFCl3 had been detected throughout the troposphere in amounts roughly corresponding to the integrated world industrial production to 1973.
There are no obvious rapid sinks for their removal.

In 1974, Molina and Rowland had attempted to calculate and analyze the probable sinks and lifetimes for the two CFCs and found the most important sink for atmospheric CF2Cl2 and CFCl3 seems to be stratospheric photolytic dissociation at altitudes of 20-40 km.
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Photolytic dissociation, or photodissociation, is the absorption of light followed by the breaking of a chemical bond. In stratosphere, both CF2Cl2 and CFCl3 absorbing radiation in the far ultraviolet (UVA), and dissociating to CF2Cl+Cl and CFCl2+Cl respectively will occur mainly in the window at 175-220, at altitudes of 20-40km.
The photolytic dissociation reactions are:

Each of the reactions creates two odd-electron speciesone Cl atom and one free radical. An extensive catalytic chain reaction leading to the net destruction of O3 and O occurs in the stratosphere:
Cl O3 ClO O2
CF2 Cl 2 CF2Cl Cl CFCl 3 CFCl 2 Cl
ClO O Cl O2
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2. The facts of ozone depletion

Ground-based and satellite instruments have measured decreases in the amount of stratospheric ozone in our atmosphere. Over some parts of Antarctica, up to 60% of the total overhead amount of ozone (known as the column ozone) is depleted during Antarctic spring (September-November). This phenomenon is known as the Antarctic ozone hole. In the Arctic Polar Regions, similar processes occur that have also led to significant chemical depletion of the column ozone. Increases in surface UV-B radiation have been observed in association with local decreases in stratospheric ozone.
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3. Montreal Protocol signed in 1987
In 1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-operation in research into the ozone layer and the effects of ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs). 1985 also marked the first discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole. On the basis of the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed on September 16, 1987 by 24 countries and by the European Economic Community. The Protocol called for the Parties to phase down the use of CFCs, halons and other man-made ODCs.
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4.The Timetable of Montreal Protocol and its following amendments

(1)Montreal Protocol (1987)
CFCs (11, 12, 113, 114, 115): Phase down 1986 levels by 20% by 1994; 50% by 1999.
(2) London Amendment (1990)
CFCs 13, 111, 112, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217: Phase down 1989 levels 20% by 1993; 85% by 1997; 100% by 2000. Halons : Phase down 1986 levels 50% by 1995; 100% by 2000. Carbon Tetrachloride: Phase down 1989 levels 85% by 1995; 100% by 2000. wu wei-dong
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(3) Copenhagen Amendment (1992):
CFCs: phase out by 1995; Halons: phase out by 1993; Carbon Tetrachloride: phase out by 1995; HCFCs: phase down 1989 levels 35% by 2004; 90% by 2019; 100% by 2029.
(4)Beijing Amendment (1999):
HCFCs: freeze the production by 2003.
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5. Greenhouse effect
This atmospheric trapping of infrared radiation is the greenhouse effect, which makes Earth habitable. The wavelength of sunlight is between 400 and 700nm, and the peak wavelength of Earth radiation is about 10,000nm. Earths atmosphere admits the visible rays from the sun, but traps the infrared rays emanating from Earths surface. The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat below by the atmosphere. It is a necessary phenomenon that keeps all Earths heat from escaping to the outer space.
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Without the natural greenhouse effect it is certain that the temperatures on Earth would be much lower than they are now, and the existence of life on this planet would not be possible.
The global average temperature would drop from its current 15to 18, and the Earth would become an ice planet.
The concern about the greenhouse effect is that it may become too much of a good thing, if the heat-trapping efficiency of the atmosphere increases further as a result of increasing concentrations of ,CO2 and other greenhouse gases. This could result in an increase in mean global temperatures as well as changes in precipitation patterns.
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6. Greenhouse gases
O2 , N2 and most diatomic molecules are unable to absorb Earths infrared radiation, therefore they are not greenhouse gases.
The principal greenhouse gases are carbon dioxideCO2, water vaporH2O, methaneCH4 , nitrous oxideN2O , chlorofluorocarbons CFCs and ozoneO3 .
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7. Global Warming
During the past century, global surface temperatures have increased at a rate near 0.06/decade but this trend has increased to a rate approximately 0.18/ decade during the past 25 to 30 years.
There have been two sustained periods of warming, one beginning around 1910 and ending around 1945, and the most recent beginning about 1976.
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During the 20th century, the atmospheric temperature rose 0.6 , and sea level rose several centimeters. Some longer-term results of global warming include melting of polar ice, with a resulting rise in sea level and coastal flooding; disruption of drinking water supplies dependent on snow melts; profound changes in agriculture due to climate change; extinction of species as ecological niches disappear; more frequent tropical storms; and an increased incidence of tropical diseases.
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8.The Refrigeration industrys journey towards sustainability
Global Warming Potential GWPof a refrigerant is an indicator of its potency to warm the planet by action as a greenhouse gas. The values shown in the environmental properties are relative to Carbon Dioxide CO2 which is normalized at 1. That is, the GWP is used by policymakers to compare the impact on the climate system of emission of different greenhouse gases. As greenhouse gases differ in their atmospheric lifetimes, GWPs also have a time component. Time horizons of 20, 100 or more years are used to enable the proper evaluation on the environment . wu wei-dong
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For 1987 to 2007, the refrigeration and air conditioning industry has undergone at least the following technological changes, starting with the pioneering work in leak-detection, containment, best practices, recovery, recycling and reducing initial change of CFC refrigerants.
This helped achieve eco-efficiency by reducing materials. The use of transitional refrigerants like HCFCs which are less harmful to the ozone layer, and then HFCs which are zero ozone depleting substitutes, followed by hydrocarbons which has no ODP nor GWP.
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The compatibility with the environment has become an essential criterion when a new refrigerant is selected to alternate CFCs/HCFCs. The problem of global warming must be considered while focus is fixed upon the problem of ozone depletion. HFCs and natural refrigerants are both developed to alternate CFCs/HCFCs. However, HFCs have high GWP, and the natural refrigerants have some properties such as flammability that restrict their applications .
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9.Direct and indirect global warming impacts
The global-warming impact of refrigerating plants (climate impact) requires in-depth analysis.
About 20%, on the average, of this impact is due to direct emissions of fluorocarbons (CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs); about 80% of this impact results from indirect CO2 emissions originating in the production of the energy which is used by these plants: generally electricity, but also direct use of fuel in mobile air conditioning and refrigerated transport applications.
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10.Calculation of global warming impacts

Methods of calculating the total effect on Global Warming have been developed using the direct (due to emission) and indirect (due to energy requirement) effects of refrigerants considered for use in a system. The introduction of TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact) enables designers and contractors to estimate the equivalent CO2 emission to atmosphere from system leakage (direct emission) and energy consumption (indirect emission). The largest portion of the global warming effect of a system is normally attributed to the (indirect) CO2 emission due to the required energy generation. Typically, the indirect effect is 90 to 98% of the global warming effect.
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The criteria used to estimate the Total Equivalent Warming Impact can be summarized as follows: TEMI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact) direct emission indirect emission or TEMI leakge energy consumption or TEWI (GWP Lannual n) ( Eannual n)
GWP Global War min g Potential of refrigeran t ,GWP of CO2 1.0
Lannual Leakage rate of refrigeran t , kg / yr
n number of years
E annual Energy consumption, kwh / yr
CO2 emission per kwhr, kg / kwh, e.g.0.45 0.8kg / kwh

TEWI (Total Equivalent War min g Inpact), kg of CO2
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11.Fluorinated Refrigerants 12.Natural Refrigerants 13.Alternative Refrigerants
The properties of Fluorinated Refrigerants Natural Refrigerants and Alternative Refrigerants are list on the book (page191)
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References
1. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1995/press.html 2. Three win Nobel Prize for research on ozone, The New York Times, October 12, 1995 3. Crutzen P.J., Ozone production rates in oxygen-hydrogen-nitrogen oxide atmosphere, Journal of Geophysical Research, 76(30), 7331-7327, 1971 4. Rawland F.S., Molina M.J., stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine atom catalysed destruction of ozone, Nature, Vol.249, 810-812, 1977, 5. http://ec.europa.eu/health/opinions2/glossary/tuv/uv-radiation.htm 6. http://www.who.int/uv/uv_and_health/en/index.html 7. Science: Ozone Basics, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)/United Nations Environment Programme report, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998 (WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project-Report No. 44, Geneva, 1999), http://www.ozonelayer.noaa.gov/science/basics.htm 8. Sparling B., Ozone layer, http://esrl.noaa.gov/csd/assessments/2002/qandas1.pdf
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7. Montreal Protocol, http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Ozone_Depletion/Older/Montreal_Protocol.html 8. China Closes Ozone Depleting Chemical Plants http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=514&ArticleID=562 4&l 9. Spiro T.G., Stigliani W.M., Chemistry of the environment, 2nd Edition, 2003, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA 10. Climate change tops Chinese premier's address at East Asia summitSingapore, Nov. 21, 2007Xinhua English 11. Shende R., From Montreal to Kyoto- The Refrigeration industrys journey towards sustainabilityUnited Nations Environment Program (UNEP)Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), International Congress of Refrigeration, Beijing, 22 August 2007 12. Lei M., Hua Z. Zh., Development of the CFCs/HCFCs alternatives subjected to ozone depletion and global warming problems, Refrigeration Technology (Chinese), 2000, 3, 15-19 13. Steiner A., Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Program, The Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol mutually supportive, Montreal, 17 September 2007, http://www.ess-hom.com/news/global-warming/ozone-depletion/asp#thumb#thumb# 14. Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air conditioning and Heating Inc (AIRAH), Refrigerant selection guide, Australia, 2003, www.airah.org.au
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Refrigeration Technology

Part 3 .The Refrigerant and Other Substances for Refrigeration

Chapter7.Introduction of Refrigerants Chapter8. Environmental Friendly Refrigerants

Chapter7. Introduction of Refrigerants

Chapter7. Introduction of Refrigerants

7-1.Refrigerant in vapor compression refrigeration

7-2.Refrigeration Characteristics of refrigerants

1. Appropriate temperature and pressure characteristics

3. Lower compression work

7-3.Some Important Physical/Chemical Properties of Refrigerants

1.Safety group classification

(1) Toxicity classification

(2) Flammability Classification

Refrigerants are assigned to one of three classes: 1, 2 or 3 based on flammability.

Tab.7-4, Safety classification of some refrigerants

4. Compatibility with Construction Materials

5. Relation of lubricating oil and refrigerant

6. Behavior of refrigerant with water

It is at least 99.95 percent pure ammonia.

7-4. Nomenclature of Refrigerants

2. The fluorinated derivatives of the saturated hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons:CH4, C2H6,C3H8 , .CaH2a+2,

Standard nomenclature of fluorinated derivatives of the saturated hydrocarbons:

3. The unsaturated hydrocarbons and their halogenated derivatives

assigned 1000 series numbers

Standard nomenclature of halogenated derivatives of unsaturated hydrocarbons:

R1( a 1)(b 1)(d )

blends assigned 400-series numbers

5. Azeotropic blends assigned 500-series numbers R5xx

R500(R12/152a(73.8/26.2)) R-502 (R22/ R115(48.8/51.2)) R507 (R125/R143a (50/50))

6. Cyclic compounds assigned RC-series numbers RCxxx

RC316 :C4Cl2F6; RC317 : C4ClF7; RC318: C4F8.

7. Organic compounds assigned 600-series numbers R6xx

8. Inorganic compounds blends assigned 700-series numbers R7xx

9. Classification of CFCS, HCFCs,HFCs, PFCs, HCs and NIK

7-5. Secondary Refrigerants

Fig.7-5, The secondary refrigerant used for distribute refrigeration

Chapter8. Environmental Friendly Refrigerants

1. Mechanism of ozone depletion by CFC

There are no obvious rapid sinks for their removal.

The photolytic dissociation reactions are:

2. The facts of ozone depletion

3. Montreal Protocol signed in 1987

4.The Timetable of Montreal Protocol and its following amendments

(2) London Amendment (1990)

(3) Copenhagen Amendment (1992):

(4)Beijing Amendment (1999):

HCFCs: freeze the production by 2003.

8.The Refrigeration industrys journey towards sustainability

9.Direct and indirect global warming impacts

10.Calculation of global warming impacts

Lannual Leakage rate of refrigeran t , kg / yr

CO2 emission per kwhr, kg / kwh, e.g.0.45 0.8kg / kwh

11.Fluorinated Refrigerants 12.Natural Refrigerants 13.Alternative Refrigerants

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