The internal structure of words

Affixes

What is an affix? An affix is a bound morpheme that is added to a base.

Affixes include:
1-Suffix: is a bound morpheme that is added to the end of base. e.g:{Z1,2,3}, {D1,2,3}, {ING1,2,3}, {ISH1,2,3,4} ..etc

2- Prefix: is a bound morpheme thats added to the begging of a base. e.g: unhappy, rewrite, enlarge, dislike, impolite, ineffective

3- Infix: is a bound morpheme that interrupts a base. e.g: {EN6} passenger messenger

4- Interfix: is the vowel (I) or (o) that connects two elements taken from Latin or Greek to form modern English compound words.

e.g. photography phot = light graphy = writing Panorama Pan = all rama = scene, view Oviside Ov = eggs side = kill Carnivorous Carn = flesh vorous = eater 5- Superfix: is the superasegmental stress that is superimposed on a base. e.g. 'permit (N) per'mit (V) / 'present (N) pre'sent (V) / 'conduct (N) con'duct(V). 6- Circumfix: are the prefix and the suffix added simultaneously to a base. e.g: light lighten enlightenment bold bolden embolden body embody embodiment

Distinction Between Derivational and Inflectional suffixes

Distinction Between Derivational and Inflectional suffixes

Derivational Suffixes

Inflectional suffixes

Most derivational suffixes change the class of the base. e.g. quick(adj)=quickly(adv) smoke(v)=smoking(n) They can pile up one after the other. They can be a sequence of three or more. e.g. norm/al/ize/s They outnumber inflectional suffixes. They are about 75. They normally do not affect the syntax. e.g. To smoke is dangerous. Smoking is dangerous.

Inflectional suffixes never change the class of the base. e.g. make(v)=makes(v) small(adj)=smaller(adj) They can never be piled. Once an inflectional suffix has been added, the base is closed. They tend to close the word. They are only eight. They tend to affect the grammar of a sentence. e.g. The student is studying the lesson. The students are studying the lessons.

Permissible Derivations in English

Permissible Derivations in English

There are only twelve permissible derivations in English:

( N = Noun / A = Adjective / V = Verb / D = Adverb)

N D

( N = Noun / A = Adjective / V = Verb / D = Adverb)

1 NA
2 AN

7
8

ND
AD

3 NV
4 VN 5 AV 6 VA

VD

10 N N 11 A A 12 V V

1-N A
E.g.: (-y): rain rainy / smell smelly / hair hairy / dirt dirty / blood bloody. {ISH1}: man mannish / child childish / woman womanish / boy boyish {ISH2}: Libya Libyan / England English / France French / Egypt Egyptian {D3}: beard bearded / tooth toothed / leg legged / eye eyed {EN4}: wood wooden / silk silken / gold golden / wool woolen {AL2}: education educational / globe global / norm normal / emotion emotional / industry industrial. (-ful): beauty beautiful / care careful / use useful / pain painful / rest restful. (-less): care careless / use useless / pain painless / rest restless. (-ic): hero heroic / economy economic / phone phonetic / atom atomic / linguistics linguistic / Arab Arabic / angle angelic / tone tonic. (-ous): danger dangerous / fame famous / industry industrious. {LY2}: month monthly / home homely / week weekly / friend friendly / year yearly.

2- A N
E.g.: (-ness): happy happiness / great greatness / sad sadness / kind kindness / dark darkness / deaf deafness / blind blindness / weak weakness. (-ity): flexible flexibility / active activity / product productivity / able ability / pure purity / stupid stupidity / sensitive sensitivity / humid humidity / electric electricity. (-cy): accurate accuracy / fluent fluency / private privacy. (-th): long length / strong strength / wide width / warm warmth / true truth.

(-dom): free freedom / wise wisdom.

3- N V
E.g.: {ISH4}: flower flourish / brand brandish
{EN3}: joy enjoy / courage encourage / danger endanger / body embody / slave enslave / flame enflame / circle encircle. {be-}: head behead. {-ize}: summary summarize / human humanize / modern modernize. (Supperfix): 'permit per'mit / 'present pre'sent / 'conduct con'duct.

4- V N
E.g.: {ER1}: write writer / make maker / print printer / read reader / speak speaker / play player. (-tion): organize organization / invite invention / illustrate illustration / translate translation / admire admiration / communicate communication. {AL1}: refuse refusal / arrive arrival / deny denial / bury burial / withdraw withdrawal. {ING3}: write writing / read reading / speak speaking / meet meeting / feel feeling / play playing. (-ure): create creature / press pressure / fail failure / depart departure. (-age): marry marriage / store storage. (-y): discover discovery / recover recovery / deliver delivery. (-th): grow growth / die death. (-ee): refer referee / train trainee / employ employee / interview interviewee / absent absentee.

5- A V
E.g.:

{EN2}: weak weaken / black blacken / deep deepen / light lighten / able enable / large enlarge.
(-ize): general generalize / normal normalize / national nationalize / formal formalize. (-fy): simple simplify / specific specify / clear clarify / ugly uglify.

6- V A
E.g.: {D2}: kill killed / murder murdered / behead beheaded. {EN1}: break broken / write written / speak spoken. {ING2}: smile smiling face / sleep sleeping eyes.

(-ive): communicate communicative / correct corrective.

(-able): break breakable / suit suitable / drink drinkable / love lovable / debate debatable / wash washable

(-ful): forget forgetful / play playful.

(-ant / -ent): resist resistant / depend dependent / reside resident. (-ous): continue continuous / vary various / study studious. There are verb adjective pairs which have the same forms: Clean (v) clean (adj) / dirty (v) dirty (adj) / separate (v) separate (adj) / clear (v) clear (adj) / present (v) present (adj).

7- N D
There are three main suffixes added to certain nouns to form adverbs: (-wise) clockwise / moneywise / timewise. (-wards) backwards / forwards. (-ways) sideways. Don't look sideways during the exam.

8- A D
E.g.: {LY1}: Adverb forming morpheme from an adjective. Quick quickly But not added to: hard / fast / good - well / which can be used as adjectives and adverbs without adding "ly". However, the word (Daily) which ends with (ly) can be used as an adjective or as an adverb. E.g. Daily newspaper / Daily mirror (adj) She daily does the housework by herself. (adv)

9- V D E.g.:
{ING4}: Smiling, he looked at me / Shouting, she closed the door / Dancing, she went to the door, hoping to see her boyfriend.

10- N N
E.g.: (-ship): friend friendship / relation relatioship / member membership / leader leadership. (-hood): child childhood / man manhood / neighbour neighbourhood (-dom): king kingdom / duke dukedom / martyr martyrdom / sheikh sheikhdom. (-ee): address addressee (receiver) / license licensee

11- A A
E.g.: {ISH3}: red reddish / yellow yellowish / green greenish. The negative prefixes: Un = happy unhappy / Im = polite impolite, possible impossible / In = direct indirect, correct incorrect / Il = legal illegal / Ir = regular irregular.

12- V V
Also, the negative prefixes:

E.g.: Dis = like dislike, believe disbelieve / Un = cover uncover / Re = write rewrite.

What's an allomorph?

Look at these words! 1-(Sheep, fish / children / oxen / men, teeth / wives). 2-(Played, Cut/ drank, found/ brought / dealt/ said/ went) What do these words share?? The words in the first group are all plural and have the same morpheme {Z1}, but they are in different shapes. And the words in the second group are all in the past simple, they share the same morpheme too {D1} and have different forms. What about these?? 3-(Books, cats, graphs) (Hands, dogs, pens) (Buses, roses, edges) 4-(asked, kissed, finished) (killed, seemed, judged) (added, started, wanted).

The words in (3) share the same morpheme {Z1}, however this morpheme is pronounced differently /s/, /z/, /iz/. Similarly, the words in (4) have the morpheme {D1}, but it has different pronunciations /t/, /d/ , /id/.

In Morphology, they call this as (Allomorph). So, Allomorph can be defined as variant representations of the same morpheme. This variation of an allomorph can be determined or conditioned either phonologically or morphologically. There are eight different ways making plural {Z1}. Three of them are phonologically conditioned and five are morphologically conditioned allomorphs of {Z1}.

1-phonologically conditioned allomorphs of {Z1}. The plurality forming (-s) suffix representing {Z1} has three allomorphs that are conditioned or determined by the nature of the preceding sound. 1- {------/s/} It occurs after voiceless sounds /p, t, k, f, / other than /s, , / e.g. stops, cats, planets, roots, books, masks, chiefs, graphs, months. 2- {----- /z/} it occurs after voiced sounds /b, d, g, v, m, n, l, r/ e.g. tabs, cabs, hands, beds, dogs, lungs, loves, systems, rooms, pens, stations, bills, novels, cars, fathers. 3- {-------/iz/} occurs after sibilants sounds /s, z, , , / e.g. buses, houses, roses, prizes, smashes, matches, coaches, edges, bridges, fridges.

2- Morphologically conditioned allomorphs of {Z1}

The plurality forming morpheme {Z1} has five allomorphs which are not conditioned phonologically. They are conditioned morphologically by changing the middle vowel, replacing a final consonant or both or by suffixing something at the end of the noun. 1: { } Zero allomorph e.g. sheep sheep fish fish deer deer craft craft offspring offspring 2: {R+ ----- /rin/} Replacement of the base with (ren) suffix. e.g. child children 3: { + ------- /in/} No base replacement but (en) is suffixed. e.g. Ox Oxen 4: {R+ ------- //} Replacement of a base without changing the final consonant. e.g. tooth teeth man men mouse mice 5: {R+ ------- /Z/} Replacement of the base +a /z/ suffix. e.g. wife wives knife knives wolf wolves thief thieves

3: Phonologically conditioned allomorph of {D1}

Similarly, the past tense morpheme {D1} (-ed) suffix add to regular verbs, has three allomorphs that are conditioned phonologically by the nature of the preceding sound. 1: { ------- +/t/} It occurs after /p, k, f, s, , , / other than /t/ e.g. /p/ stopped, stepped, dropped /k/ /f/ /s/ // //
/ /

looked, asked, walked sniffed, laughed, coughed kissed, missed, dressed, crossed crashed, finished, washed matched, hatched, touched bathed

2: { ----- /d/} It occurs after /b, g, m, n, l, r, z, / e.g. /b/ disturbed, transcribed /g/ begged, hanged, longed

/m/ seemed, dreamed, flamed, planned, claimed /l/ /r/ pulled, killed, filled, smelled stored, ignored, encountered

/n/
/z/ //

cleaned, learned, leaned

pleased, squeezed, realized pledged, judged, aged, arranged, managed

3: { ------ +/Id/}
It occurs after /t, d/ e.g. /t/ /d/ started, wanted, waited, printed, wounded, added, ended

4: Morphologically conditioned allomorphs of {D1}

The past tense morpheme {D1} has a set of six allomorphs that are conditioned morphologically. Thats to say, by replacing a middle vowel or a final consonant or both. 1: { } Zero allomorph means present and past have same form. e.g. cut, shut, cost, let, hit, spread, hurt, put 2: {R+ ----- } Replacement of the base, but no change occurs at the end e.g. drink drank write wrote speak spoke read read sit sat win won find found take took 3: {R+ ------- /t/} Replacement of the base and a /t/ is suffixed. e.g. catch caught bring brought sleep slept deal dealt teach taught think thought mean meant weep wept

buy bought fight fought dream dreamt

4: {R+ ------- /d/} Replacement of the base and a /d/ is suffixed. e.g. do did have had tell told sell sold bind bound find found breed bred feed fed forbid forbade hold held lead led make made slide slid stand stood 5: { + ------ /t/}

say said bleed bled hear heard ride rode

No base replacement but (en) is suffixed.

e.g. spell bend spelt bent smell build smelt built spoil burn spoilt
burnt

6: {S} Suppletion:
A technical linguistic term meaning total replacement of the base. e.g. go went be was/were

Ways of word formation

How are new English words created?

There are several processes by which new words are formed. 1-The first process of word formation is by "Affixation" or "Derivation". As explained in the previous lessons. 2- Acronyms: Look at these words: Laser, UNESCO, UNICEF, TESOL, AIDS, NATO, IELTS . What do these words stand for? Laser Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation. UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund TESL Teaching English as a Second Language Rader Radio detecting and ranging AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization IELTS International English Language Testing System. TOEFL Test of English as Foreign Language

How are the previous words formed? The Acronyms is the process by which new words are created by taking the initial letter or letters of complete words and joining them together to form a new word. These letters are pronounced as a word.

3- Abbreviations
To replace language words, like taking the initial, middle or final letter or letters of phrases and these letters are pronounced as separate letters. TV television ID Identity Card ASAP as soon as possible ELT English Language Teaching WWW World Wide Web MBA Master of Business Administration PTV Public Television ETV Educational Television BBC British Broadcasting corporation

4- Clipping "shortening"
Some words are used in a shortened from by subtracting one or more syllables from a word. This shortening sometimes occurs at the beginning of a word, at the end or both. flu influenza Prof professor Lab laboratory Maths mathematics coca cola coke

Photo photograph

Phone telephone

Plane aeroplane

5- Blending
In this process, two words are sometimes clipped and the clippings joined together to form a new word. Branch Breakfast and lunch Motel motorists and hotel Smog smoke and fog Telecast television and broadcast Medicare medical care

6- Coinage "inversions"
Coinage is the process by which new words are created without any method of language rules. They are words used to name new inventions or discoveries and these words come to stay as a part of the language. E.g. x ray Kodak, Xerox and nylon. Some brand names such as Kleenex and Xerox are used as the general name for different brands of these same type of products.

7- Borrowing "loanwords"
English is very borrowing language. It borrows words from other languages and these words are used as English ones. Which language do these words come from? Cotton, pizza, samba, tango, yogurt, fianc, caf, Guru, Bazaar, sheikh, tycoon cotton from Arabic Tango from Spanish Caf from French Sheikh from Arabic pizza from Italian Samba (dance) from Brazilian Yogurt borrowed from Turkish Fianc from French Guru (sheikh or teacher) from Hindi Bazaar from Persian tycoon (very rich and powerful person) from Japanese

8- Compounding
Its a technique by which English speaking people have been increasing the vocabulary. Its the process by which English roots or roots taken from other languages or elements are put together to from new compound words. The new compound word is sometimes spelt as a single word such as "bathroom", "classroom" or as a hyphened word as" in-laws"," man-eating", "short-sighted", "life-style" or as two separate words without a hyphen such as "white house"," high chair"," text book", "work book", "video tape".
There are four patterns for compounds in English:

1-The traditional English patterns

In this pattern, the two parts of the compound are English ones. e.g.: green house housewife armchair textbook NOTE: All combinations are possible A+A A red-handed N+N N housewife V+V V sleepwalk- freeze- dry A+N N greenhouse N+A A head strong N+V V spoon-feed, sunshine A+V A highborn ..etc.