Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator

Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
Mrs. S. N. Kale Asst. Professor PVPIT, Budhgaon
In the first part of this unit we would be studying the basics associated with the industrial robots, like basic types, Classifications: the methods to specify the robots, types of drive technologies used in robotic applications, Motion control methods the various applications of the robots. specifications: Example: RHINO XR-3
2 Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
Mankind has always strived to give life like qualities to its

artifacts. He tries to find substitute for himself to carry out his orders
and also work in hostile environment.

Broadly robot is a machine that looks and work like a human being. The industry is moving from automation to robotization , to increase productivity and deliver uniform quality. Robots are employed in to hostile environment: 1. Atomic plant to handle radioactive material. 2. Construct and repair space station and satellites. 3. Nursing and aiding patient in medical field. 4. Heavy earth moving equipments.
reasons for using a robot but the central reason is to eliminate a human operator. The most obvious reason : To save labor and reduce cost. Other classes of applications concern the product: Human is bad for the product: e.g. semiconductor handling, food handling, pharmaceuticals, etc. Product is bad for the human : e.g. radioactive product. robots can be used to replace human operators where the dangers are: 1.Repetitive strain syndrome. 2.Working with machinery that is dangerous for example presses, winders. 3.Working with materials which might be harmful in the short or long term(toxic chemicals, radioactive material.
Here robot is considered as industrial robot called as robotic manipulator or robotic arm.
This arm is roughly similar to human arm.

It is modeled as chain of rigid links interconnected by flexible joints. Links corresponds to :chest, upper arm, fore arm Joints: shoulder, elbow, and wrist. At end of arm is an end effector ( tool, gripper or hand). Tool has two or more fingers that open Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator and closes.
Wrists connects end effector to forearm. End effector may be a tool and its fixture or gripper or any other device 1. Grippers: are generally used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a desired location.
Grippers classified as mechanical grippers, vacuum or suction cups, magnetic grippers, adhesive grippers, hooks, scoops, and so forth. 2. Tools: a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a work part. Here the tool acts as endeffector. Spot-welding tools, arc-welding tools, spray-painting nozzles, and rotating spindles for drilling and grinding are Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator typical examples of tools used as end-effectors.
Automation and robot:

Automation is technology which is concerned with the use of mechanical ,electrical and computer based system in operation and control of production. e.g. Transfer lines,mechanized asembly machines,feedback control system,numerically controlled machine tools and robot Two types: Hardware automation and software automation
Hard automation, also called fixed automation, is built with a specific production purpose.
This automation approach is best suited for mass production of the same product with few alterations or change-overs. When volume of production is very high, special equipment are designed to process product efficiently and at high production rate. When production cycle ends or new product is introduced ,that m/c have to be shut down and h/w retooled for next generation of models. CNC machines are examples of hard automation
Soft automation, often referred to as flexible automation, is reprogrammable and reconfigurable.

Now auto industry and other industries have introduced more flexible forms of automation in manufacturing cycle. Programmable mechanical manipulator are now being used to perform task as spot welding ,spray painting, material handling etc. Since computer controlled mechanical manipulators can be converted through s/w to do variety of task they are referred as soft automation.
10
Robots fall into thisManipulator soft automation category. This method Fundamental of Robotic is ideal for handling small batches of product and
Unit cost
Manual labor Soft automation hard automation
v1
Product volume
v2
Qualitative comparison of cost effectiveness of manual labor ,hard automation and soft automation Upto v1-manual labor is cost effective. After v2 hard automation is cost effective V1 to v2-soft automation is cost effective
Robots, the industrial robots are the specialized, highly
automated mechanical manipulators which are controlled by

sophisticated electronic control systems and computer systems The robots can be programmed to do a variety of operations by just changing the predetermined set of instructions
called program , through some compatible software.

This is also termed as soft automation.
12
What is an Industrial Robot? An industrial robot is a programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions to perform a variety of tasks. An industrial robot consists of a number of rigid links connected by joints of different types, controlled and monitored by a computer.
13
An industrial robot can be defined as :
Robot can also be defined as a software

controllable mechanical device that uses
actuators and sensors to guide one or more end

effectors through programmed motions in a workspace in order to manipulate physical objects.
What are the parts of a robot?
Manipulator Pedestal Controller End Effectors Power Source

Manipulator
(Mimics the human arm)
Base Appendage
Shoulder
Arm Grippers
16
Pedestal
Supports the
manipulator.
Acts as a
counterbalance.
17
Controller
(The brain)
Issues instructions
to the robot.
Controls peripheral
devices.
Interfaces with
robot.
Interfaces with
humans.
End (The hand) Effectors Spray paint

attachments
Welding
attachments
19
Vacuum heads Hands Grippers
Power Source
(The food)
Electric Pneumatic Hydraulic
20
21
Classification :
based on drive technologies:
An important element: The drive system ,it supplies the power for the actuation of various linkages and joints of a robot and enabling the robot to move. The dynamic performance depends on the type of power source. three types of power sources for robots: Electric drive: Most of the industrial robots use electric drive system, in the form of either DC stepper motor drive (open loop control), or, DC servo motor drive (closed loop control). Advantages: This drive system gives better positioning accuracy and repeatability, and is suitable Fundamental of Robotic Manipulatorto keep cleaner environment around. 22
But it gives lower movement compare to the hydraulic robots and the electric drive system is good for small and medium size robots only.
Hydraulic drive: at higher speeds and at substantial loads hydraulic drive robot are preferred. Disadvantage: it occupies large space area and there is a danger of oil leak to the shop floor.
23
Pneumatic drive: used for high speed and/or high-load-carrying capabilities. A pneumatic drive is clean and fast but it is difficult to control because air is a compressible fluid.
For both electrical and hydraulic drive robots most of the time make use of the pneumatic tools or end effectors. Pneumatic drives used especially when the gripping action of the end effectors is simple open and close operation to pick light objects.
the pneumatic drive system is preferred for smaller robots as these are less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots and suitable for relatively less degrees of freedom design for simple pick and place application.
Work envelop geometries:

The Robotic Motions: oThe industrial robots are designed to perform some desirable work o This can be performed by enabling the manipulator to
move the body, arm and wrist through a series of motions.

oIt helps the end effectors of the robot to achieve the desirable position and orientation in the three dimensional space surrounding the base of the robot.
25
Robot Joints
A robot joint permits relative movement between parts of a robot arm.
The joints of a robot are designed to enable the robot to

move its end-effector along a path from one position to another as desired. The end effector is mounted on a
flange or some plate secured to the wrist.

It is the tool to perform some operation or some gripper for pick and place operations.
26
The robot movements are broadly classified into two main categories, namely (i)arm and body motions (ii) wrist motions.
The individual joint motions associated with these two categories are also referred to as the degrees of freedom .
The first three axes of the robot are referred to as the major axes. The position of the end-effector of the robot is determined by the position of the major axes.
Similarly three more axes associated with the wrist, are called minor axes and are used to establish the orientation of the tool or the gripper at wrist.
Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom (DOF) is a term used to describe a robots freedom of motion in three dimensional space
specifically, the ability to move forward and backward, up and down, and to the left and to the right.
For each degree of freedom, a joint is required. A robot requires minimum six degrees of freedom to be completely versatile.
Its movements are clumsier than those of a human hand, which has 22 degrees of freedom
29
The number of degrees of freedom defines the robots configuration. For example, many simple applications require movement along three axes: X, Y, and Z. See Figure 2-10. These tasks require three joints, or three degrees of freedom
30
Thus a minimum of six axes are required to achieve any desirable position and orientation in the robots work volume or work envelop or workspace.
The locus of the points in the three dimensional space that can be reached by the wrist by the various combinations of the movements of the robot joints from base up to wrist, is called the gross work envelop of the robot. The robot motions are accomplished by means of powered joints.
31
The rigid members connected at the joints of the robot are called links. In the link-joint-link chain, the link closest to the base is referred to as the input link . The output link is the one which moves with respect to the input link. There are basically two types of joints commonly used in industrial robots, which are: (i) prismatic or linear joints,(p) which have sliding or linear (translational) motion along an axis.
32
(ii)Revolute ,(R) : which exhibits the rotary motion about an axis.
the links are aligned perpendicular to one another at this kind of joint. The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.
Based on the physical configuration or the combination of the revolute or prismatic joints for the three major axes, a particular geometry of the work envelop is achieved. The table shows the some of the most common robot work envelops based on the major axes:
robot cartesian
Axis 1 P
Axis 2 P P
Axis 3 P P
Total revolute 0 1
Cylindrical R
Spherical
SCARA
34
R
R
R
R R
P
P R
2
2 3
Articulated R
Cartesian Gantry Robot Arm
35

robots with Cartesian configuration consist of links connected by linear joints (p). Thus the resulting configuration is (PPP). The three joints corresponds to the notation for the moving the wrist up and down, in and out, and back and forth. Thus the work envelop/ work volume generated by this robot is a rectangular box. example: the gantry robot Uses 3 perpendicular slides to construct x , y , z axes. Hence called xyz/rectilinear robot. e.g. IBM RS-I robot
commonly used : for pick and place work for heavy loads assembly operations handling machine tools arc welding operations

work envelop/ work volume
38
The major advantages :

1.Ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces. 2.Easy computation and programming. 3.Most rigid structure for given length.
Disadvantages : 1.Requires large operating volume. 2.Exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or dusty
environments
3.Can only manipulate the objects in front of it. 4.Axes of robot are hard to seal
Cylindrical Robot Arm

Changing the first prismatic joint of the Cartesian coordinate robot by revolute joint, to have RPP configuration we get the cylindrical coordinate robot. The space in which this robot operates is cylindrical in shape, hence the name cylindrical configuration. The revolute joint swings
the arm back and forth about

vertical base axis. The prismatic joints then
R
P
move the wrist up and down

along vertical axis and in and out along a radial axis.
Cylindrical Robot Arm
41
As there is always some minimum radial position, the work envelop is actually the volume between two concentric cylinders.
42
commonly used for: handling at die-casting machines, assembly operations, handling machine tools, and spot welding operations.
major advantages : 1.can reach all around itself 2.rotational axis easy to seal 3.relatively easy programming 4.rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working space. 5.good access into cavities and machine openings. Disadvantages : 1.can't reach above itself. 2.linear axes is hard to seal. 3.wont reach around obstacles. Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator 43 4.exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids.
Spherical Robot Arm
44
If second joint of cylindrical coordinate robot is replaced with revolute joint (RRP) this produces spherical coordinate robot.
Here the first revolute joint
swings the arm back and forth

about a vertical base axis, the second revolute joint moves the arm up and down about the horizontal shoulder axis,
the prismatic joint moves the

wrist radially in and out
The work envelope is the volume between two concentric spheres

e.g. UNIMATE 2000 series, MAKER 110
46
commonly used for: material handling at die casting or fettling machines, handling machine tools and for arc/spot welding etc. the advantages: 1.Large working envelope. 2.Two rotary drives are easily sealed against liquids/dust. The disadvantages are: 1.Complex coordinates more difficult to visualize, control, and program. 2.Exposed linear drive. 3.LowFundamental accuracy of Robotic Manipulator
47
Spherical: RRP
SCARA Robot Arm

Adept's SCARA robots
48
Like a spherical coordinate robot, a SCARA robot (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) is a robot with at least two parallel revolute joints (R) and having one linear joint for the positioning of the But for a SCARA robot all three joint axes are vertical wrist. Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator 49
The first revolute axis swings the arm back and forth about base axis i.e vertical shoulder axis. The second revolute joint swings the forearm back and forth about the vertical elbow axis.
Thus two revolute joints control

motion in a horizontal plane. The vertical component of motion is provided by third joint, a prismatic joint which slides the wrist up and
50 down . Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
It gives rigidity in vertical direction and complianc e in horizontal axis
51
Work envelope
commonly used for: pick and place work, and assembly operation with high working speeds. main advantages : 1.High speed. 2.Height axis is rigid. 3.Large work area for floor space. 4.Moderately easy to program. The main disadvantages : 1.Limited applications. 2.Two ways to reach a point. 3.Difficult to program off-line. 4.Highly complex arm.
Articulated Robot Arm
53
In articulated coordinate robot all joints are revolute joint (RRR). It closely resembles the anatomy of human arm.
First revolute joint swings robot back and forth about vertical base axis. Second joint pitches the arm up and down about horizontal shoulder axis. Third joint pitches the forearm up and down about horizontal elbow axis. of Robotic Manipulator Fundamental 54
55
Work envelope
commonly used for:

assembly operations, welding, weld sealing, spray painting, and handling at die casting or fettling machines. main advantages :
1.All rotary joints allows for

maximum flexibility 2.All joints can be sealed from the
environment.
The main disadvantages are:
1.Extremely difficult to visualize,

control, and program these robots. 2.Restricted volume coverage.
56 3. Low accuracy. Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
Manipulators Robot Configuration:
Cartesian: PPP
Cylindrical: RPP
Spherical: RRP
Hand coordinate: SCARA: RRP Articulated: RRR

57 (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
n: normal vector; s: sliding vector; a: approach vector, normal to the tool mounting plate
Classification based on motion control methods:

There are two types of motions: 1. Point to point motion:
It is based on method used to control the movement of end effec
Tool moves to sequence of discrete points in a workspac It is useful for operation which is discrete in nature. e.g. Spot welding , pick and place , loading and unloading Continuous motion: End effector follows a prescribed path in three dimensional space. The speed of motion may vary along the path. e.g. arc welding , spray painting
The path between points is not explicitly controlled by user
What Can Robots Do?

Industrial Robots
Material handling Material transfer Machine loading and/or unloading Spot welding Continuous arc welding Spray coating Assembly Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator 59 Inspection
Material Handling Manipulator
Assembly Manipulator
Spot Welding
1.12.1 Loading/unloading parts to/from the machines (i)Unloading parts from die-casting machines (ii)Loading a raw hot billet into a die, holding it during forging and unloading it from the forging die
(iii)Loading sheet blanks into automatic presses

(iv)Unloading molded parts formed in injection molding machines (v)Loading raw blanks into NC machine tools and unloading the finished parts from the machines
60
61
Single machine robotic cell applications include: (i)The incoming conveyor delivers the parts to the fixed position (ii)The robot picks up a part from the conveyor and moves to the machine (iii)The robot loads the part onto the machine (iv)The part is processed on the machine (v)The robot unloads the part from the machine
(vi)The robot puts the part on the outgoing conveyor

(vii)The robot moves from the output conveyor to the input conveyor
Multi-machine robotic cell application: Two or three CNC machines

are served by a robot. The cell layout is normally circular.
Assembly Operations: Electronic component assemblies and machine assemblies are two areas of application.
Inspection: Industrial robots are used for inspection applications, in which the robot end effector is special inspection probe.
63
Palletizing and Depalletizing: Many products are packaged in boxes of regular shape and stacked on standard pallets for shipping. Robots are commonly used to palletize and depalletize boxes because they can be programmed to move through the array of box positions layer after layer.
64
Drilling Hole drilling is a precision machining process. Drilling robots use special drilling end effectors which locate and dock onto the work piece or a fixture.
65
Spot Welding
Spot welding is the most common welding application found in the manufacturing field.
66
Fastening Robots are commonly used for applying threaded fasteners in the automobile industry for fastening wheels,
in the electronics industry for screwing components to circuit boards and circuit boards into chassis.
67
Paint and Compound Spraying Robots provide a consistency in paint quality and widely used in automobile industry for medium batch production. Painting booths are hazardous because the paint material is often toxic, and flammable.
68
Arc Welding Ship building, aerospace, construction industries are among the many areas of application
69
Robot specification
But in addition to classification, there are several additional characteristics : (i)Number of axes (ii)Load carrying capacity (kg) (iii)Maximum speed (mm/sec) (iv)Reach and stroke (mm) (v)Tool orientation (deg) (vi)Precision, accuracy and Repeatability of movement (mm)
(viii) Operating environment

Number of Axes The industrial robots have got a number of axes about which its various links rotate or translate. the first three axes of the robot called major axes are used to establish the position of the wrist. The remaining axes of the robot are used to establish the orientation of the robots wrist, called minor axes . Thus a six axes robot is a general manipulator which can move its end effector to both an arbitrary location and an arbitrary orientation with in its work volume.
71
Some industrial robots have more than six axes, termed as the redundant axes , which are generally used to avoid certain obstacle in the robots work volume. The mechanism to activate the robot tool (end effector), or the opening and closing of the robots gripper, is not considered as the independent robot axis, as this mechanism (axis) do not contribute to acquire either the position or the orientation of the end effector in robots working space.
72
Load Carrying Capacity:

The load carrying capacity is mainly determined by various factors : robots size, configuration, type of drive system and the type of application for which it is designed. A very wide range: from few grams to several thousand of kilograms. The maximum load carrying capacity should be specified for the condition that it is in its weakest position.
It is the position when the robots arm is at maximum horizontal extension.
73
The specification provided by manipulator manufacturers is actually the gross weight capacity that can be put at the robotic wrist. Thus to use this specification the user must know weight of the end effector.
E.g., if the gross load carrying capacity of a robot is 10.0 kg and its end effector weigh 3.0 kg, then the net load carrying capacity of the robot would be only 7.0 kg.
74
Maximum Speed of Motion The maximum tool tip speed of the robots is from a few mm per second to several meters per second.
The speed of the robot is measured at robots wrist.

Thus the highest speeds can be achieved with maximum horizontal extension of arm away from the base of the robot. Also the type of the drive system affects the joint speeds, e.g. the hydraulic robots are having faster joint motions than the electrical drive robots.
75
A meaningful measure of the robot speed is the cycle time, which is the time required to perform several periodic motions of robot. As it is desirable for any production operation to minimize the cycle time of task, most of robots have the provision to regulate or adjust the speed.
76
Reach and Stroke: Reach and stroke of the robot are the measure of the work volume of the robot. The horizontal reach: it is the maximum radial distance at which the robotic wrist can be positioned away from the vertical axis about which the robot rotates, or the base of the robot. The horizontal stroke: it is the total radial distance the wrist can move.
There is always a certain minimum distance the robots wrist will remain away from the base axis.
77
Thus, the horizontal stroke is always less than equal to the horizontal reach. For a cylindrical coordinate robot the horizontal reach is the outer cylinder of the workspace, while the horizontal stroke is the difference between the radii of the concentric outer cylinder and the inner cylinder, as shown in figure 1.10
78
The vertical reach: is the maximum vertical distance above the working surface that can be reached by the robots wrist. The vertical stroke: is the total vertical distance that the wrist can move.
the vertical stroke is also always less than equal to the vertical reach.
articulated robot have full work envelope means stroke equal to reach But necessary to program to avoid collision with itself or work surface.
79
Tool Orientation The three major axes of the robot determine the work volume, while remaining additional axes of the robot determine the orientation of the robots end effector. If three independent minor axes are present then the end effector will able to achieve any arbitrary orientation in the three dimensional work volume of the robot. the three axes associated with the wrist are called as yawpitch and roll which are used to define the orientation of end effector of robot.
80
Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom (DOF) is a term used to describe a robots freedom of motion in three dimensional space specifically, the ability to move forward and backward, up and down, and to the left and to the right. For each degree of freedom, a joint is required.
A robot requires six degrees of freedom to be completely versatile.

Its movements are clumsier than those of a human hand, which has 22 degrees of freedom
81
For applications that require more freedom, additional degrees can be obtained from the wrist, which gives the end effector its flexibility. The three degrees of freedom in the wrist have names: pitch, yaw,and roll. See Figure 2-11. The pitch, or bend, is the up-anddown movement of the wrist. The yaw is the side-toside movement, and the roll, or swivel, involves rotation.
82
83
1.Wrist roll: it involves the rotation of the wrist mechanism about the arm axis. Wrist roll is also referred to as wrist swivel. 2. Wrist pitch: if the wrist roll is in its center position, the wrist pitch is the up or down rotation of the wrist. also called wrist bend. 3.Wrist yaw: if the wrist roll is in center position of its range, wrist yaw is the right or the left rotation of the wrist. The wrist yaw and pitch definitions are specified w.r.t.the central position of the wrist roll, the rotation of the wrist about the arm axis will change the orientation of the pitch and yaw movements. The robot would have a spherical wrist if the axes used to orient the tool intersect at a common point.
F3,m3
Roll
wrist
Pitch F1,m1
F2,m2
Yaw
85
86
To specify tool orientation a mobile tool coordinate frame M={m1,m2,m3} is attached to tool and moves with tool. M3 is aligned with principal axis of tool and pts away from wrist M2 is parallel to line followed by fingertips of tool as it opens or closes. M1 completes right handed tool coordinate frame By Mconvention, yaw pitch and roll motions are performed in specific order about set of fixed axis Initially mobile tool frame is coincide with wrist coordinate frame F= {f1,f2,f3} attached at fore arm 1) Yaw motion is performed by rotating tool about wrist axis f1 2) Pitch motion by rotating tool about wrist axis f2 3) Roll motion rotating tool about wrist axis f3 Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator
87
88
89
Precision, Accuracy and Repeatability of movement The precision of movement is basically a function of three features: special resolution, accuracy, And repeatability
These terms are defined for: the robot's wrist end without any tool attached for the conditions under which the robot's precision will be at its worst. the robot has least precision of movement with the robot's arm is fully extended
90
(i) Spatial Resolution It is defined as the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its work volume. depends on the systems control resolution and the robot's mechanical in accuracies.
The control resolution for a robot is determined by the position control system and the feedback measurement system. It is the controller's ability to divide the total range of movement for the particular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the controller.
91
Accuracy is an absolute concept, repeatability is relative. Accuracy relates to the robot's capacity to be programmed to achieve a given target point.
The actual programmed point will probably be different from Fundamental of Robotic 92 target the point due Manipulator to limitations of control resolution.
It is measure of ability of robot to place tool tip at arbitrarily prescribed location in work envelope.
Error is half of spatial resolution.

Error is worst in outer range of its work volume and better when arm is closer to base.
93
Repeatability: Repeatability is the measure of the ability of the robot to position the tool tip at same position repeatedly. There is always some repeatability error associated because of backlash in gears, flexibility of the mechanical linkages and drive systems. The repeatability errors are very small in magnitude for well designed robotic manipulators. Repeatability and accuracy refer to two different aspects.
94
Repeatability errors form a random variable and constitute a statistical distribution. Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator 95
A robot that is repeatable may not be very accurate, and visa versa. Let T be the desired target point to where the robot is commanded to move , but due to limitations on its accuracy, the programmed position becomes point P. The distance between points T and P is robot's accuracy. When, the robot wrist is commanded to the programmed point P again , it does not return to the exact same position. Instead, it returns to position R. The difference between P and R is limitations on the robot's repeatability. The robot will not always return to the same position R on subsequent repetitions of the motion cycle.
96
Instead, it will cluster of points on both sides of the position Fundamental of form Robotic a Manipulator P
Precision : It is closely related to repeatability. It is measure of spatial resolution with which tool can be positioned within work envelope.
A B
If tool tip is positioned at A then next closest position that it moves is B Then distance bet. A and B is precision. Tool tip might be positioned anywhere on 3 dimensional grid of pts within work space. Overall precision is max. distance between neighboring pts in grid Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator 97
Cartesian robot: interior grid pt have 8 neighbors in horizontal plane + 9 neighbors in plane above and below
For Cartesian robot, Precision is uniform throughout work envelop
98
Robot type
Horizontal precision Uniform Decreases radially Decreases radially varies
Vertical precision Uniform Uniform Decreases radially Uniform
Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical SCARA
articulated
99
varies
varies
cartesian
Cylindrical robot
100
r a c Grid elemen t r d
101

Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Fundamental of Robotic Manipulator

Mrs. S. N. Kale Asst. Professor PVPIT, Budhgaon

Mankind has always strived to give life like qualities to its

and also work in hostile environment.

This arm is roughly similar to human arm.