Polytechnic Manufacturing and Automation

FLDS 385 EATON Industrial Hydraulics Manual Chapter 2 Principles of Hydraulics

Ted Nelson A.Sc.T. Rm T409 403-284-8242 ted.nelson@sait.ca

Section1. Introduction to Hydraulics

Objectives:
1.3 Examine the principles of hydraulic systems. 1.5 Draw a simple circuit using appropriate schematic representation. 1.6 Build a simple hydraulic circuit. 1.7 Discuss and follow safety practices current in the hydraulic industry.

Principles of Hydraulics
This Chapter is divided into 3 sections 1) Principles of Pressure 2) Principles of Flow 3) Hydraulic Graphic Symbols

The first two sections further develop the fundamentals of power in the hydraulic circuit
The last section will deal with the classes and functions of lines and components

Principles of Pressure
The term hydraulics is derived from a Greek word for water Therefore: the science of hydraulics also includes any device operated by water A water wheel or turbine, is a hydraulic device
The moving water hitting the water wheel turns kinetic energy into useful work

flour

flour
flour

flour

r flou

Figure 2-1

Hydrodynamic device uses kinetic energy rather than pressure

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Principles of Pressure
Hydraulic Devices defined:
Hydrodynamic Device: A hydraulic device which uses the impact or kinetic energy in the liquid to transmit power
Hydrostatic Device: A hydraulic device which is operated by a force applied to a confined liquid Pressure is the force applied over an exposed area and is expressed as force per unit area (lbs/in2 = psi, Pa, 1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.1 mPa)

Pressure
How Pressure is Created:
Pressure results from a resistance to fluid flow
Pressure also results from a force that tries to make the fluid flow
A mechanical pump induces flow Or it could be from the weight of the fluid or load

In a body of water, pressure also increases with depth

Pressure
How Pressure is Created:
An Italian scientist named Torricelli proved that flow out of a hole in the bottom of a tank was fastest when the tank was full, and the flow rate decreased as the water level lowered In other words, as the head of water above the opening lessens, so does the pressure
Torricelli could only express the pressure at the bottom of the tank as feet of head or height in feet of the column of water

Pressure
How Pressure is Created:
Today, with pound per square inch (psi) as a unit pressure, we can express pressure anywhere in any liquid or gas in more convenient terms All that is required is knowing how much a cubic foot of the fluid weighs

Pressure
How is Pressure head Created:
Below shows a head of one foot of water is equivalent to 0.433 psi, a five-foot head of water equals 2.17 psi and a ten-foot head of water equals 4.33 psi
0.433 psi

A one-foot head of oil is ~ 0.4 psi

The terms head and pressure are sometimes used interchangeably

1. A foot-square section of water 10 ft high contains 10 cu ft of water. If each cu ft weighs 62.4 lbs

2.165 psi

10 ft

4.33 psi
2. then the total weight is 624 lbs. This weight is divided over 144 sq in. This gives us a pressure of 4.33 psi at the bottom of the 10 ft column of water Figure 2-2 Pressure head comes from weight of the fluid

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Atmospheric Pressure
Created by the weight of the air in our atmosphere
~ 0.5 psi per 1000 feet of elevation

At sea level, a column of air with 1in2 cross-section at the full height of the atmosphere weighs 14.7 lbs (therefore a pressure of 14.7 psia) At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure is less than 14.7psia, due to less weight in the column
Area = 1 in2

Below sea level the pressure is more than 14.7 psia Calgary is ~ 3000 ft above sea level so our atmospheric pressure is ~ 13.2 psia

1. A column of air one square inch in cross-section and as high as the atmosphere

15 20 25 30 10 35 5 40 0

psia

2. weighs 14.7 pounds at sea level. Atmospheric pressure is therefore 14.7 psia

Figure 2-3

Atmospheric pressure is a head of air

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Atmospheric Pressure
Vacuums:
Any condition where pressure is less than atmospheric pressure is called a vacuum or partial vacuum A perfect vacuum is the complete absence of pressure or zero psia (zero bar absolute, zero kPa absolute)

Atmospheric Pressure
Mercury Barometer:
Atmospheric pressure is also measured in inches of mercury (in. Hg) Torricelli discovered that an inverted tube full of mercury will only fall a certain distance in a pan full of mercury
Vacuum

1. Atmospheric pressure here 2.supports a column of mercury this high Atmospheric Pressure 29.92 inches

Mercury

Figure 2-4

The mercury barometer measures atmospheric pressure

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON COPRORATION

Atmospheric Pressure
Mercury Barometer:
He reasoned that atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in the pan was supporting the weight of the column of mercury with a perfect vacuum at the top of the tube At sea level, the column is 29.92 in. Hg (rounded to 30 in. Hg)
Vacuum

1. Atmospheric pressure here 2.supports a column of mercury this high 29.92 inches

This is another equivalent of the pressure of one atmosphere

Atmospheric Pressure

Mercury

Figure 2-4

The mercury barometer measures atmospheric pressure

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON COPRORATION

Atmospheric Pressure
Measuring Vacuum:
Vacuum can be expressed as psia or psi (in negative units) as well as in inches of mercury
Most vacuum gauges are calibrated in inches of mercury

A perfect vacuum which will support a column of mercury 29.92 inches high, and is stated as 29.92 in. Hg
Zero vacuum (atmospheric pressure) reads zero on a vacuum gauge

Summary
Pressure and Vacuum Scales:
0 psig is equal to 14.7 psia Which is equal to 0 in. Hg or 29.92 in. Hg absolute
Gauge Pressure Scale (psig)
+5

Absolute Pressure Scale (psia)

+20

Absolute Pressure Scale (In Hg Abs)

+40

Atmospheric Pressure ---- 0 o (59 F @ Sea Level)

0 PSIG

+14.7 PSIA

+15

0 inch Hg

+29.92 inch Hg Absolute

+30

Absolute Pressure -5 Absolute Pressure Vacuum -10 Vacuum +5 +10 +10 +20

Perfect Vacuum ---------- -15 (Absolute Zero Pressure)

0 -14.7 PSIG 0 PSIA -29.92 inch Hg 0 inch Hg Abs

Figure 2-5

Gauge and absolute pressure c omparison

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Summary
Pressures and Vacuums:
1 atmosphere is a pressure unit equal to 14.7 psi (1.01 bar, 101 kPa) psia (pounds per square inch absolute) is a scale that starts at a perfect vacuum

psi or psig (pounds per square inch gauge) is calibrated in the same units as psia but ignores atmospheric pressure

Summary
Pressures and Vacuums:
To convert psia to psig:
Gauge Pressure + 14.7 = Absolute Pressure Absolute Pressure 14.7 = Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure on the barometer scale is 29.92 in. Hg

Compared to the psia scale
1psi = 2 in. Hg (approximately) 1 in. Hg = 0.5 psi (approximately)

An atmosphere is approx equal to 34 ft of water or 37 ft of oil

Principles of Flow
Flow in the hydraulic system gives the actuator its motion Pressure gives the actuator its force Flow is created by the pump Pressure is created by a restriction

Principles of Flow
How Flow is Measured:
Flow of a fluid is measured by two ways:
Velocity is the average speed of the fluids particles past a given point Flow Rate is a measure of the volume of fluid passing a point in a given time

Below, with a constant flow rate of one gallon per minute, the velocity will either increase or decrease when the cross-section of the pipe changes in size
200 100 0 300 400 500 600 700 800 200 100 0 300 400 500 600 700 800 300 400 200 100 0 500 600 700 800

psig

psig

psig

Figure 2-6

Flow is volume per Unit of time; velocity is distance per unit of time

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Principles of Flow
How Flow is Measured:
Velocity: Imperial Measured in feet per second (fps), feet per minute (fpm) or inches per second (ips)

Metric Measured in meters per second (m/s), meters per minute (m/m), or centimeters per second (cm/s)

Principles of Flow
How Flow is Measured:
Flow Rate: Imperial Large volumes are measured in gallons per minute (GPM) Small volumes are measured in cubic inches per minute (in3/min) Metric Large volumes are measured in liters per minute (l/m) Small volumes are measured in cubic centimeters per minute (cm3/min)

Principles of Flow
Flow Rate and Speed:
The speed of a hydraulic actuator always depends on its size and the rate of flow into it 1 GPM = 231 in3/minute

GPM = in3/minute 231

in3/minute = GPM x 231

Principles of Flow
Flow and Pressure Drop:
Whenever a liquid is flowing, there must be a condition of unbalanced force to cause motion Therefore: when a fluid flows through a constant-diameter pipe, the pressure will always be slightly lower downstream This difference in pressure or pressure drop is required to overcome friction in the line

Principles of Flow
Flow and Pressure Drop:
The pressure drops below are due to friction Succeeding pressure drops (from maximum pressure to zero pressure) are shown in differences in head in the succeeding vertical pipes
3. The Succeedingly lower fluid levels in these pipes is a measure of pressure at the points down stream from the source

4. Pressure is zero here because the fluid is unrestricted at this point

1. Pressure is maximum at this point due to the depth of the fluid column

2. Friction in the pipe causes the pressure to drop from maximum to zero Friction in pipes results in a pressure drop

Figure 2-7

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Principles of Flow
Fluid Seeks a Level:
When there is no pressure difference on a liquid, it stays level A. The liquid is subject to atmospheric pressure at all points so the fluid 1. The is subject to atmospheric pressure at all is the same level at liquid all points
points so the fluid is the same level at all points

Principles of Flow
Fluid Seeks a Level:
If the pressure changes at one point the liquid levels at the other points rise only until their weight is sufficient to makeup the difference in pressure The difference in height (head) in the case of oil is 1 foot per 0.4 psi 2. The liquid is still subject to atmospheric
1. If the pressure is increased here pressure at all points, so the fluid is higher, but still the same level at all points

B.

Principles of Flow
Laminar Flow:
Ideally, when a fluid moves through a pipe, the particles should move in a straight, parallel flow path Laminar flow occurs at low velocity in straight piping Friction is reduced with laminar flow
1. Low velocity flow in a straight pipe is streamlined or laminar. This is the most desirable flow condition 3. Gradual changes in direction do not upset the flow pattern, this helps keep pressure drops low

2. Gradual changes in cross-section do not upset the laminar flow

Principles of Flow
Turbulent Flow:
When particles dont move smoothly & parallel to the flow direction Turbulent flow is caused by abrupt changes in direction, cross-section, or too high of a velocity Friction is increased which generates heat which increases operating pressure and wastes power A heat exchanger is the only place where turbulent flow is required
1. Flow in a straight pipe is streamlined 3. Abrupt changes in direction increase pressure drop due to the fluid flow becoming turbulent. This is highly undesirable due to heat and energy loss

Principles of Flow
Bernoullis Principle:
Hydraulic fluid in a working system contains energy in two forms:
Kinetic energy by virtue of the fluids weight and velocity Potential energy in the form of pressure

Bernoulli demonstrated that in a system with a constant flow rate, energy is transformed from one form to the other each time the pipe cross-section size changes Bernoullis principle states: If the flow rate is constant, the sums of the kinetic energy and the pressure energy at various points in a system must be constant

Principles of Flow
Bernoullis Principle:
As the cross-sectional area of a flow path increases, the velocity (kinetic energy) of the fluid decreases Therefore, if the kinetic energy decreases, there is an increase in pressure energy
200 100 200 300 400 500 600 50 100 0 700 50 0 300 400 500 600 700 200 300 400 500 600 50 100 0 700

psig

psig

psig

1. In the small section of pipe velocity is maximum and pressure is 300 psi. When fluid reaches the large section of pipe velocity of the fluid decreases and the pressure goes up. As the fluid leaves the larger section it speeds up and the pressure drops back to 300 psi

Principles of Flow
Venturi Effect:
Air flowing through the carburetor barrel is reduced in pressure as it passes through the reduced cross-section of the throat The decrease in pressure permits gasoline to flow, vaporize and mix with the air stream

1. Volume of air is determined by the butterfly valve 2. At the venturi throat the air speeds up and the pressure drops

3. The pressure is higher in the fuel bowl than in the venturi throat, this pressure difference pushes the fuel into the moving air stream

Principles of Flow
Bernoullis Principle:
Effects of friction and velocity changes on the pressure in a line As the pipe diameter increases, the velocity of the fluid slows and allows the pressure to increase in this section of the pipe
1.Friction reduces the head at succeeding points

2.However when the pipe diameter is increased the velocity of the fluid slows, this reduces the pressure drop allowing pressure to rise in the larger section of pipe Figure 2-13 Friction and velocity effect pressure

COPYRIGHT C (2001) EATON CORPORATION

Hydraulic Symbols
Hydraulic circuits and components are depicted in various ways in drawings Depending on what is needed to be conveyed the symbols may be:
A pictorial representation of the components exteriors A cutaway showing internal construction A graphic diagram which shows function

The graphic diagram is most commonly used in industry

Hydraulic Symbols
Symbols are the shorthand of the circuit diagrams using simple geometric forms to show functions and interconnections of lines and components The complete set of Basic Hydraulic Symbols are located on page 547 in Appendix B of the EATONS Industrial Hydraulics Manual

Hydraulic Symbols
Lines:
Hydraulic pipes, tubes and fluid passages are drawn as single lines There are three basic classifications:
A working line (solid line) carries the main stream of flow in the system
This includes the pump inlet (suction) line, pressure lines and return lines to the tank

A pilot, or sensing line (long dashes) carries the fluid that is used to control the operation of a valve or other component A drain line (short dashes) carries leakage oil back to the reservoir to prevent a pressure build-up in the area being drained

Hydraulic Symbols
Working Lines (solid lines):
Line #1 is the pump inlet, Line #2 is a return line and Line #3 is a pressure line
3. The pressure line is a working line, so it is a solid line 4. Pilot lines operate valves or other controls, they are long dashed lines. They operate with low flows only

1. The pump inlet is a working line, so it is a solid line

5. Short dashed lines are drain lines. They drain leakage oil from pumps, valves, and motors

2. Return lines are working lines, so they are solid lines

Hydraulic Symbols
Pilot or Sensing Lines (long dashes):
Line #4 is a pilot line, which operates valves or other components
3. The pressure line is a working line, so it is a solid line 4. Pilot lines operate valves or other controls, they are long dashed lines. They operate with low flows only

1. The pump inlet is a working line, so it is a solid line

5. Short dashed lines are drain lines. They drain leakage oil from pumps, valves, and motors

2. Return lines are working lines, so they are solid lines

Hydraulic Symbols
Drain Lines (short dashes):
Line #5 is a drain line, which drains leakage oil from pumps, valves, and motors back to the reservoir It may be less confusing to draw more than one reservoir
3. The pressure line is a working line, so it is a solid line 4. Pilot lines operate valves or other controls, they are long dashed lines. They operate with low flows only

1. The pump inlet is a working line, so it is a solid line

5. Short dashed lines are drain lines. They drain leakage oil from pumps, valves, and motors

2. Return lines are working lines, so they are solid lines

Hydraulic Symbols
Rotating Components:
A circle is the basic symbol for rotating components Energy triangles are placed in the symbols to show them as an energy source (pump) or energy receiver (motor)
1. The fluid energy triangle points out showing the pump as a source of flow 3. The triangle pointing in shows the motor receiving energy

Pump

Motor

2. Two fluid energy triangles show the pump to be bi-directional, meaning flow may switch between ports

4. Two triangles show the motor to be directional, the motor is reversible

Hydraulic Symbols
Rotating Components:
A unidirectional component symbol is drawn with only one triangle A reversible (bi-directional) component is drawn with two triangles
1. The fluid energy triangle points out showing the pump as a source of flow 3. The triangle pointing in shows the motor receiving energy

Pump

Motor 4. Two triangles show the motor to be bidirectional, the motor is reversible

2. Two fluid energy triangles show the pump to be bi-directional, meaning flow may switch between ports

Bi-directional Pump

Bi-directional Motor

Hydraulic Symbols
Cylinders:
A cylinder is drawn as a rectangle with a piston, piston rod and port connection(s) A single acting cylinder is drawn with an open end at the rod end and with only a cap end port connection
Piston rod Port

Piston Port connection Single-acting Cylinder Double acting Cylinder Port

Hydraulic Symbols
Cylinders:
A double acting cylinder is drawn with a closed end at the rod end and with two port connections

Piston rod Port connection

Piston Port connection Double acting Cylinder Port connection

Hydraulic Symbols
Valves:
The basic symbol for a valve is a square (called an envelope) Arrows are added to show flow paths and the direction of flow

Infinite Positioning Valves:

Pressure & flow control valves are infinite position valves They can have many positions between fully open and fully closed depending on the volume of fluid passing through them Drawn as a single square, and can be N/O or N/C

Hydraulic Symbols
Directional Valves:
Directional valves are finite positioning valves The basic symbol contains an individual envelope (square) for each position it can be shifted to The three position valve shown below is called a bang bang type because it goes from one extreme to the other very quickly

Hydraulic Symbols
Infinite Positioning Directional Control Valves:
Proportional and Servo valves, are drawn with two or more envelopes (squares) to show the directions of flow They also have two parallel lines drawn outside the envelopes to show infinite positioning capability These are very high end valves, and very costly

Hydraulic Symbols
Reservoir:
A reservoir is drawn as a rectangle with an open top if it is vented and with a closed top if it is pressurized Lines are drawn to the bottom of the reservoir symbol when the lines terminate below the fluid level of the tank (return lines) Lines are drawn to the top of the reservoir symbol lines ro when sevlav etathe repo se nil toliP .4 gnol era yeht ,slortnoc rehto terminate above the fluid level of the tank (drain lines) htiw etarepo yehT .senil dehsad
Directional Valve

ylno swolf wol

Relief Valve Pump

A Motor

Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir

senil nruteR .2 gnikrow era yeht os ,senil senil dilos era

era niar ,spm

There is typically only one reservoir in a system though the symbol is redrawn for simplicity sake.

Any Questions?