Introduction to Forensic Psychology

2nd Edition Bartol & Bartol (2008)

Chapter 3

Police Psychology Investigative Psychology

Investigative Psychology

DEFINITION: The application of psychology to criminal investigation.

Profilingone of the tasks often associated with investigative psychologyrequires sketching the significant psychological and demographic features of a person or persons. Broadly defined, investigative psychology includes research and practice involving:
-Profiling -Police Line-ups -Polygraph Hypnosis -Risk Assessment -Interrogation -Other?

3 Questions

What are the important behavioral features of the crime that may help identify and successfully prosecute the perpetrator? What inferences can be made about the characteristics of the offender that may help identify him or her?

Are there any other crimes that are likely to have been committed by the same person?

CRIMINAL PROFILING Background

What is Criminal Profiling?

Criminal profiling is the process of identifying personality traits, behavioral tendencies, geographical location, and demographic or biographical descriptors of an offender (or offenders) based on crime scene characteristics.

Goals of Profiling

The primary goal of profiling is to narrow the field of possible suspects.

Profiling is also a form of prediction -- the profiler tries to predict who the offender or offenders might be and where and how the next crime may occur.

Why Use Criminal Profiles in Law Enforcement?

Traditional investigative techniques often fall short in extreme cases. A subset of offenses/offenders are considered most suitable for profiling -What subset of offenders and why more suitable for profiling??

Brief History of Criminal Profiling

1940s - First recorded use by psychiatrist Walter Langer during WWII commissioned to construct a psychodynamic profile of Hitler. 1957 - psychiatrist James Brussels worked with NYPD to construct a profile of the Mad Bomber.

1970s-1980s - FBI (Howard Teten, John Douglas, Robert Ressler, Roy Hazelwood, and others) became involved in psychological profiling and popularized the technique.
1990s 2003 - attempt (by David Canter, Maurice Godwin, Ron Holmes, Robert Keppel, Brent Turvey, Kim Rossmo and others) to scientize profiling and move the practice beyond the purview of the FBI.

The FBI Profilers

Small/prominent group of FBI profilers helped to popularize the term in 1970s in the Behavioral Science Unit -- called the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC) since 1984. Responsible for establishing the Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP). Published Crime Classification Manual, Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives and true crime novels. Are known for the ORGANIZED/DISORGANIZED typology and focus on M.O. and SIGNATURE. Criticized for relying too much on intuition/faulty use of the scientific method.

Is Profiling a Science or Profession?

Profiling has not yet achieved the status of a profession. Factors hindering professionalization:

Lack of consensus (on terms, approaches, training, appropriate experience/educational background, etc.). Practical issues (sensitivity and confidentiality of cases). Ego/territorial issues. Absence of uniform standards, practices, peer review, and ethics. Small number (if any) of profiling positions where profiling is the primary job description. The notion (and acknowledgement among many profilers) that profiling is more art than science.

Assumptions Made in the Profiling Process

See Holmes & Holmes (2001). Profiling Violent Crimes. Sage.

Crime scene reflects the personality of the offender.

M.O. remains similar. Signature will remain the same.

Offenders personality will not change.

The Organized-Disorganized Typology

Whether or not the crime scene is left ORGANIZED or DISORGANIZED is said to provide information about the offenders criminal sophistication and personality.

Organized crime scene reflects offender who commits crime out of a need for power. Motivation associated with PSYCHOPATHY.
Disorganized crime scene reflects offender who commits crime out of passion, compulsion, frustration, or anxiety. Motivation associated with PSYCHOSIS.

The Organized Crime Scene

See Ressler, Burgess, & Douglas (1992) Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives. Free Press.

Offense planned Victim a targeted stranger Victim personalized Controlled conversation Crime scene reflects overall control Demands submissive victim

Restraints used Aggressive acts prior to death Body hidden Weapon/evidence absent victim or body transported from scene Associated with psychopathy

The Disorganized Crime Scene

See Ressler, Burgess, & Douglas (1992) Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives.

Spontaneous offense Victim or location known Depersonalizes victim Minimal conversation Crime scene random and sloppy Sudden violence to victim

Minimal use of restraints Sexual acts after death Body left in view Evidence/weapon often present Body left at death scene Associated with Psychosis

Interview/Interrogation Strategies
See Holmes & Holmes (1996) Profiling Violent Crimes. Sage.

ORGANIZED

DISORGANIZED

Direct confrontation Respects competency One-person interview Dont expect free information No use of false evidence (are too sharp for this) Conduct when suspect has no time to gather thoughts

Relationship motivated Empathy Constant stream of conversation Use positive personal relationship Conduct at night

Distinction Between Psychopathy and Psychosis

PSYCHOPATHY

Personality disorder made up of a particular constellation of characteristics) Lack of attachment, defect in affect, absence of anxiety In touch with reality

PSYCHOSIS

Clinical mental illness Schizophrenia May meet legal definition of insanity Out of touch with reality

Criticism of the Organized/Disorganized Typology

See Turvey (2002) Criminal Profiling. Academic Press.

Developed/oversimplified for use by law enforcement professionals with little academic training in criminology, psychology, and forensic science and encourages unsophisticated profiling. Is a FALSE DICHOTOMY --few offenders/crime scenes it neatly into either type.

Other problems?

M.O. and Signature

(See Douglas, Burgess, Burgess, & Ressler (1997). Crime Classification Manual. Jossey-Bass; Keppel, R.D. & Birnes, W.J. (1997). Signature Killers. Pocket Books.

METHOD OF OPERATION (M.O.)

How the offender committed the crime. Tells about the experience of the offender and situational/contextual factors involved in the crime.

SIGNATURE

The behavior/expression of fantasy the killer must leave at the scene to satisfy emotional/psychological needs. Goes beyond whats necessary to commit crime and tells about the offenders psychological needs and motivation.

Factors that Shape M.O.

Trade/Professional Experience Criminal experience and confidence

Contact with the criminal justice system

Media and pop culture

Offender Mood/Mental state

X-Factors (unknown/unplanned influences)

Factors that Shape Signature

Personality/Psychopathology
Evolution of Fantasy

Distinguishing M.O. from Signature

See Turvey (2002) Criminal Profiling. Academic Press.

Signature and M.O. needs may be satisfied by the same behavior. Important to remember the two most important axioms of criminal profiling: Different offenders do similar things for different reasons. Offender behaviors can be the result of multiple motivations and/or external influences.

Static and Dynamic Risk

See Andrews & Bonta (2003). The Psychology of Criminal Conduct. Anderson.

Offender risk factors are static and dynamic. Are important in understanding M.O. and Signature behaviors.

STATIC RISK: Stay the same over time DYNAMIC RISK: Change over time Stable dynamic: change slowly over months or years Acute dynamic: change rapidly over minutes or days.

What type of risk factors are M.O. and Signature behaviors?

The Psychological Autopsy

The Psychological Autopsy is an attempt to reconstruct the personality profile and cognitive features of deceased. This postmortem psychological analysis is also called reconstructive psychological evaluation and equivocal death analysis .

Psychological autopsies are important to:

Assist certifying officials to clarify deaths that are ambiguous, uncertain, or equivocal as to the manner of death Aid in investigation to determine insurance payments and national security issues. To make a reasonable determination of what may have been in the mind of the deceased person leading up to and at the time of deathparticularly if the death appears to be a suicide

Psychological autopsies differ from criminal profiling in two important ways: (1) the profile is constructed on a dead person, and (2) the identity of the person is already known.

Geographical Profiling and Mapping

Geographical profiling refers to the analysis of geographical

locations associated with the spatial movements of a single serial offender,

Geographical mapping is concerned with analyzing the

spatial patterns of crimes committed by numerous offenders over a period of time. Geographical mapping focuses on identifying the hot spots of certain types of crime.

In 1995, D. Kim Rossmo wrote a doctoral dissertation at Simon Frasier Universitys School of Criminology on geographical profiling. Rossmo developed a computer program called Criminal Geographic Targeting (CGT). It is designed to analyze the geographical or spatial characteristics of an offenders crimes.

The Polygraph

The polygraphcommonly called the lie detectordetects psychophysiological responses that accompany emotional reactions to guilt, shame, and anxiety through heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, and skin conductance. In addition to observing the physiological measures, the skillful polygrapher makes behavioral observations and notations to infer truth or deception in the subject being examined. The polygraph can accurately measure and record the physiological responses but it is unclear whether it can detect actual lying and deception.

INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND OFFENDER PROFILING

Discussion Questions

Discussion Questions:
(Homant & Kennedy/B&B Supp Readings)

What are the major limitations in researching the effectiveness of profiling? Why Is Profiling So Inaccurate?

What direction do the authors of your readings this week (e.g., Homant & Kennedy) suggest we need to go in terms of conducting research on profiling? How do Homant & Kennedy define:

Offender Profiling Psychological Profiling Geographical Profiling Equivocal Death Analysis

Discussion Questions:
(Muller/B&B Supp Readings)

What two main approaches to profiling are reviewed in this article? Explain the features of each.

Discussion Questions:
(B&B Text Ch 3)

What might explain the popularity of profiling, despite the lack of evidence to support it?
What other applications of psychological theory and research do the authors suggest can be considered under the heading of investigative psychology?

Discussion Questions ~ General:

(B&B (Text)

Explain the significance of static and dynamic risk factors in the prediction and profiling of human behavior. Explain how the processes of a) unconscious transference and b) own-race bias can affect identification provided by eyewitnesses to an event. Forensic psychologists have offered recommendations to police in constructing lineups. What are these recommendations? Upon what research findings are they based?