Plant Nutrition & Transport

Definitions
Transpiration Loss of water vapour from the leaves through the stomata by diffusion Translocation Movement of sucrose and amino acids from regions of production or of storage to regions of use for respiration or growth

The Process of Photosynthesis

Green plants take in carbon dioxide through their leaves. This happens by diffusion. Water is absorbed through plants roots by osmosis and transported through the xylem vessels Chloroplasts, containing chlorophyll, are responsible for trapping light energy This energy is used to break up water molecules and then to bond hydrogen and carbon dioxide to form glucose Glucose is usually changed to sucrose for transport around the plant, or starch for storage. Oxygen is released as a waste product, or used by the plant for respiration.

Testing a leaf for Starch the Process

Stage Boil the leaf in water Boil the leaf in ethanol Reason To kill the leaf this makes it permeable To decolourise the leaf chlorophyll dissolves in ethanol Safety Points Danger of scalding No naked flames ethanol is highly flammable

Rinse the leaf in water

Boiling the leaf in ethanol makes it brittle the water softens it

So that the results are easy to see To test for the presence of starch Avoid skin contact with iodine solution

Spread the leaf out on a white tile Add iodine solution to the leaf

Factors needed for Photosynthesis

Experiments can be used to find out what factors are needed for photosynthesis First the plant is destarched. This involves leaving the plant in the dark for 48 hours The plant uses up all the stores of starch in its leaves One plant is exposed to all conditions needed this is the control Another plant is deprived of one condition After a few hours the starch test is carried out on the control and test plant/leaf When tested only the parts of the plant that contain chlorophyll will contain starch The carbon dioxide around a plant can be controlled by keeping the plant in a sealed container with carbon dioxide absorber such as sodium hydroxide pellets. The control plant would be in an identical container, without carbon dioxide absorber

Ext only Effects of light intensity & Carbon Dioxide concentration on photosynthesis
As light intensity increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis (graph page 32) The light intensity (I) is related to the distance (d) between the lamp and the plant (I = 1/d2) As the lamp is moved closer, the light intensity increases. The photosynthetic rate cannot be increased indefinitely; a point is reached where all the chloroplasts cannot trap any more light Also if there is a limiting factor (such as carbon dioxide) the rate of photosynthesis becomes limited.

Ext only Use of carbon dioxide enrichment, optimum light and optimum temperatures in greenhouse systems
Greenhouses are used in some countries to control conditions for plant growth, especially when growing conditions outside are not ideal. The glass helps trap heat inside, and atmospheric conditions can be controlled. Atmospheric air only contains 0.04% Carbon dioxide, so it can easily become a factor that limits the rate of photosynthesis. A greenhouse is a closed system, so the content of the air in it can be controlled. For example, the amount of carbon dioxide can be increased by burning fossil fuels in the greenhouse, or releasing pure carbon dioxide from a gas cylinder If lighting is not optimum artificial lights are used

Leaf Structure

Leaf Structure
Part of a Leaf
Cuticle
Upper Epidermis Palisade mesophyll Spongy mesophyll Vascular bundle

Details
Made of wax, waterproofing the leaf. It is secreted by cells of the upper epidermis
These cells are thin and transparent to allow light to pass through. No chloroplasts are present. They act as a barrier to disease organisms. Main region for photosynthesis. Cells are columnar (quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to trap light energy. They receive carbon dioxide by diffusion from air spaces in the spongy mesophyll Cells are more spherical and loosely packed. They contain chloroplasts, but not as many as in palisade cells. Air spaces between cells allow gaseous exchange carbon dioxide to the cells oxygen from the cells during photosynthesis This is a leaf vein, made up of xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels bring water and minerals to the leaf. Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids away (this is called translocation)

Lower epidermis
Stomata

Acts as a protective layer. Stomata are present to regulate the loss of water vapour (this is called transpiration). Site of gaseous exchange into and out of the leaf.
Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. These can control whether the stoma is open or closed. Water vapour passes out during transpiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen diffuses out during photosynthesis.

Importance of nitrate and magnesium ions

Nitrate ions are needed to synthesise (build up) proteins Remember that all proteins contain the element nitrogen To build proteins, plants first make amino acids Each amino acid is formed by combining sugars, made during photosynthesis, with nitrate The amino acids are made into long chains by bonding them together The proteins are used to make cytoplasm and enzymes Magnesium ions are needed to make chlorophyll. Each chlorophyll molecule contains one magnesium atom. Plant need chlorophyll to trap light to provide energy during photosynthesis

Nitrogen Fertilisers
Use To increase crop yields. Intensive farming (repeatedly using the same land for crops) removes nitrates from the soil. These need to be replaced to prevent a drop in yield. Nitrates can be replaced in three ways: Applying animal manure Crop rotation growing leguminous plants such as peas, beans and clover every 2 or 3 years; these plants develop root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the roots are ploughed into the soil, boosting nitrate levels Adding artificial fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate

Nitrogen Fertilisers
Dangers of overuse Wilting and death of plants. Applying too much nitrogen fertiliser can result in water being drawn out of the plant roots by osmosis. The plants wilt and may die. Eutrophication this is the destruction of life in nearby rivers or lakes.

Flowchart of overuse - Dangers of overuse

Leaching Nitrates are soluble they can be leached out of the soil by heavy rainfall and are carried into the nearest water system such as a river Rapid algal growth The presence of extra nitrates promotes growth of water plants (algae) Death of algae Surface algal growth blocks light for algae below as the surface algae grow more quickly they also die Decay by bacteria As the algae die, they are decomposed by bacteria the bacteria respire aerobically, using up oxygen Death of aquatic animals Fish and other aquatic animals die from lack of oxygen

Ext only Effects of nitrate ion & magnesium ion deficiencies on plant growth
Nitrate ion deficiency
If the plant has a nitrate ion deficiency it will not be able to make proteins, so growth will slow down The stem becomes weak, lower leaves become yellow and die, while upper leaves turn pale green

Magnesium ion deficiency

If the plant has a magnesium ion deficiency it will not be able to make a chlorophyll Leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem upwards. Plant growth will suffer because it will have reduced photosynthesis Yellowing of leaves due to lack of magnesium ions is called chlorosis

Transport in Plants
Root Hair Cells These form on young roots to increase the surface area of the root for absorption of water and mineral ions, as well as providing anchorage for the plant The cell extension (the hair) increases the surface area of the cell to make it more efficient in absorbing materials

 Water passes through the cells of the root by osmosis, reaching the xylem vessels in the centre When the water reaches the xylem it travels up these vessels, through the stem to the leaves Mature xylem cells have no cell contents, so they act like open-ended tubes allowing free movement of water through them In the leaves, water passes out of the xylem vessels into the surrounding cells Mineral ions are also transported through the xylem

Passage of water through root, stem & leaf

Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from a leaf Water in the leaf cells forms a thin layer on their surfaces The water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll This creates a high concentration of water molecules They diffuse out of the leaf into the surrounding air, through the stomata, by diffusion

Factors affecting the transpiration rate

Factor Increase in temperature Explanation Increases the kinetic (movement) energy of water molecules, so they diffuse faster

Increase in air movement, e.g. Removes water molecules as they pass Wind out of the leaf, maintaining a steep concentration gradient for diffusion Decrease in humidity Results in a lower concentration of water molecules outside the leaf, making a steeper concentration gradient of diffusion

Increase in light intensity

Stomata open to allow gas exchange for photosynthesis, so water vapour can diffuse out of the leaf

How wilting occurs

Young plants stems and leaves rely on their cells being turgid to keep them rigid If the amount of water lost from the leaves of a plant is greater than the amount taken into the roots, the plant will have a water shortage Cells become flaccid if they lack water, and they will no longer press against each other Stems and leaves loose their rigidity, and wilt

Ext only Mechanism of water uptake

Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. This happens when the water potential in the soil surrounding the root is higher than in the cell As the water enters the cell, its water potential becomes higher than in the cell next to it, e.g. In the cortex. So, the water moves by osmosis, into the next cell. The process is repeated until water reaches the xylem. Water also passes from cell to cell along the cell walls

Ext only Mechanism of water movement through a plant

Water vapour evaporating from a leaf creates a kind of suction, as water molecules are attracted to each other. So, more water is drawn into the leaf from the xylem This creates a transpiration stream, pulling water up from the root Xylem vessels act like tiny tubes-drawing water up the stem by capillary action. Roots also produce a root pressure, forcing water up xylem vessels