Bio 11 - Cell Structure

FORMULATION OF THE CELL THEORY
In 1839, Theodor Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells He summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells: 1) The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things. 2) The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of organisms. The correct interpretation of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others and formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow's powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells".
THE MODERN TENETS OF CELL THEORY

1. all known living things are made up of cells. 2. the cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation does not occur). 4. cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. 5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition. 6. all energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
THE CELL : basic unit of

structure and function
Animal cell
THE CELLplant cell
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells subdivided by internal membranes into membrane-enclosed organelles. nucleus - Largest organelle Other organelles in cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cells Simples, smaller, DNA not separated from the rest of the cell by membranebounded organelles
prokaryotic
eukaryotic
mitochondrion
Chloroplast lysosome Golgi complex Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus with several linear chromosomes
Kingdom
Monera (Prokaryotic)
Protists, fungi , plants, animals (Eukaryotic)
Distinguishing features of cell type
Nucleoid. No Nucleus membranebounded by a bounded membrane nucleus DNA in several -Circular strand linear of DNA chromosomes - Few cell Many specialized organelles membranebound organelles
prokaryote
The minimum resolution of a light microscope is about 2 microns, the size of a small bacterium Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen.
At higher magnifications, the Fig. 7.1 image blurs. Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2. THE CELL
2. THE CELL
Sugar-phosphate backbone Nitrogen bases
Nucleotide= base, sugar, phosphate
DNA molecule: composed of 2 nucleotide chains, twisted in a double helix
Flow of genetic information
Type of protein Structural
function Support
examples Silk fibers for cocoons and web.Keratin in hair, horns, feathers Digestive enzymes of egg white for dev of embryo. Casein, protein of milk for baby mammals Antibodies that combat bacteria Hemoglobin, transports O2 from lungs to other parts of the body. Other proteins transport molecules across cell membranes Insulin, secreted by pancreas help regulate concentration of sugar in the blood Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell
enzymatic
Storage
Accelerate chemical rx
Storage of amino acids protection Transport of other subs.
Defensive Transport proteins
Hormonal proteins
Coordination of activities Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Receptor proteins
Contractile
movement
Actin and myosin for muscular movement
Every function in the living cell depends on Proteins proteins Motion and locomotion depends on proteins, ex. Muscles Enzymes for catalysis of biochemical reactions Structure of cells and the extracellular matrix in which they are embedded are made of proteins Receptors of hormones are proteins Hemoglobin is a protein Signalling molecules are proteins Among essential nutrients are proteins Transcription factors that turn genes on and off are proteins Hemoglobin is a protein Feathers, spider webs horns are made of proteins Seeds are rich in proteins
Heritable information carried by DNA

James Watson Francis Crick (1953)
Rosalind Franklin X-ray crystallographer made the photo that Watson and Crick used in deducing the double helical structure of DNA
Nucleotides: Basic chemical units of DNA and RNA,

consist of 4 nitrogenous bases linked to a sugar which is in turn linked to a phosphate.
Robert Hookes simple microscope
The Cell theory predates other great paradigms of biology: Darwin's theory of evolution (1859), Mendel's laws of inheritance (1865), Establishment of Comparative biochemistry (1940) Profound revelations, led to greater understanding of the structures and processes that make up the living state.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. The semifluid substance within the membrane is the cytosol, containing the organelles. All cells contain chromosomes which have genes in the form of DNA. All cells also have ribosomes, tiny organelles that make proteins using the instructions contained in genes.
Fig. 7.4 The prokaryotic cell is much simpler in structure, lacking a nucleus and the other membrane-enclosed organelles of the eukaryotic cell.
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cellulose- linear chain of covalently linked glucose In primary cell wall, one cellulose polymer has ca 6000 glucose units About 80 celulose m,olecules associate to form a microfibril
The plasma membrane functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes for the whole volume of the cell.
Fig. 7.6
Internal membranes compartmentalize the functions of a eukaryotic cell

A eukaryotic cell has extensive and elaborate internal membranes, which partition the cell into compartments. These membranes also participate in metabolism as many enzymes are built into membranes.
The nucleus contains a eukaryotic cells genetic library

The nucleus contains most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell.
Some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
The nucleus averages about 5 microns in diameter. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane.
These are separated by 20-40 nm.
Where the double membranes are fused, a pore allows large macromolecules and particles to pass through.
function Support
enzymatic
Storage
Hormonal proteins
Receptor proteins
Contractile
movement
The DNA of genes controls protein production indirectly using RNA as intermediary. Sequence of nucleotide along a gene is transcribed into RNA.
Then translated into a specific protein with a unique shape and function.
The entire process in which the information in a gene directs the production of a cellular product is called Gene expression In translating genes into proteins, all forms of life employ essentially the same genetic code


Kingdom
Monera (Prokaryotic)
Protists, fungi , plants, animals (Eukaryotic)
Distinguishing features of cell type
Nucleoid. No Nucleus membranebounded by a bounded membrane nucleus DNA in several -Circular strand linear of DNA chromosomes - Few cell Many specialized organelles membranebound organelles
prokaryote
The minimum resolution of a light microscope is about 2 microns, the size of a small bacterium Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen.
At higher magnifications, the Fig. 7.1 image blurs. Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
function Support
enzymatic
Storage
Hormonal proteins
Receptor proteins
Contractile
movement


Nucleus directs protein synthesis by synthesizing mRNA Then mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm via the nuclear pores.
Ribosomes translate the mRNAS genetic message into the primary structure of a specific polypeptide (polymer of linked amino acids- which are building blocks of proteins).
DNA-RNA-PROTEIN
Transcription and translation Genes provide instructions for making specific proteins
enzymes structural
storage
Accelerate chem rx support
transport
Hormonal
Receptor
Digestive enzymes Insects, spiders make web Storage of amino Ovalbumin=protein acid of egg white Transport of other Hemoglobinsubstances transports oxygen Coordination of the Insulin regulate organisms activities concentration of sugar in the blood Response of cell to receptors built in chemical stimuli membranes
Proteins Continued Contractile and motor protein Defensive protein Movement Actin and myosin for movement Antibodies, combat bacteria and viruses
Protection against certain microoorganisms
nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filaments that maintain the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear membrane,
Fig. 7.9
DNA
DNA and associated proteins organized into chromatinappear as diffuse mass When cell prepares to divide, chromatin fibers coil up, seen as separate structures (chromosomes)
nucleolus
Mass of densely-stained fibers and granules
where Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized
rRNA combine with proteins from cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits
Ribosomes build a cells proteins

Ribosomes contain rRNA and protein. A ribosome is composed of two subunits that combine to carry out protein synthesis.
rRNA from Combine to nucleolus form ribosomal Proteins from Subunits. cytoplasm Subunits exit nuclear pores to the cytoplasm
Fig. 7.10
Cell types that synthesize large quantities of proteins (e.g., pancreas) have large numbers of ribosomes and prominent nuclei. free ribosomes, are suspended in the cytosol and synthesize proteins that function within the cytosol bound ribosomes, are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum.
These synthesize proteins that are either included into membranes or for export from the cell.
Endomembrane system
Many of the internal membranes in a eukaryotic cell are part of the endomembrane system.
are either in direct contact or connected via transfer of vesicles, sacs of membrane.
the membranes are even modified during life.
endomembrane system includes: the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, the plasma membrane.
Endomembrane system
The endomembrane system plays a key role in the synthesis (and hydrolysis) of macromolecules in the cell. The various components modify macromolecules for their various functions.
Fig. 7.16
ER accounts for half the membranes in a eukaryotic cell. membranous tubules and internal, fluid-filled spaces, the cisternae. ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope and the cisternal space of the ER is continuous with the space between the two membranes of the nuclear envelope
There are two, regions of ER that differ in structure and function.

Smooth ER looks smooth because it lacks ribosomes. Rough ER looks rough because ribosomes (bound ribosomes) are attached to the outside, including the outside of the nuclear envelope.
Fig. 7.11
Smooth ER are important in synthesis of lipids, oil, phospholipids and steroids (sex hormones of vertebrates), metabolism of carbohydrates. Other enzymes in the smooth ER of the liver help detoxify drugs and poisons.
These include alcohol.
Rough ER is especially abundant in those cells that secrete proteins, ex. pancreatic cells synthesize protein insulin on the ER.
As a polypeptide is synthesized by the ribosome, it is threaded into the cisternal space through a pore formed by a protein in the ER membrane. Many of these polypeptides are glycoproteins, a polypeptide to which an oligosaccharide is attached.
These secretory proteins are packaged in transport vesicles that carry them to their next stage.
Proteins on free ribosomes in cytosol

Nucleus Mitochondria Chloroplast or peroxisomes Proteins synthesized in bound ribosomes are transferred into the rough ER Proteins destined for secretion or incorporation into ER Golgi Lysosome Plasma membrane
Cell exterior
Secretory pathway- ER
Golgi
Secretory vesicles
Membrane bound proteins are synthesized directly into the membrane. As the ER membrane expands, parts can be transferred as transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system.
Rough ER is also a membrane factory
Golgi akso manufactures Some molecules. Pectin and other noncellulosic molecules which are incorporated with cellulosecto cell walls.
After leaving ER many transport vesicles travel to Golgi where products of ER such are proteins are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations
Vesicles form cnd leave Golgi carry proteins
Golgi-flattened membranous sac
Lysosomes-digestive compartment, carry out intracellular digestion

Lysosome digest materials taken into the cell Hydrolytic enzymes In the lysosome
Lysosome digesting food
Lysosome breaking down damaged organelles
vacuoles
Repository of inorganic ions Contain pigments Hold reserves of proteins stockpiled in vacuoles Major role in growth of plant cells , enlarge as their vacuoles absorb water, cells become larger with minimal investment in new cytoplasm
Raphide encased in carbohydrates
Raphide crystals
Prismatic crystal
druses
prismatic
raphide
druse
Cystolith
Review organelle relationships

Nuclear membrane
Vesicles from ER flow to Golgi carrying proteins Golgi pinches off vesicles give rise to lysosomes, etc. Transport vesicle carries protein to plasma Membrane for secretion
Lysosome
Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes made by rough ER, then to Golgi. Lysosomes arise by budding
CHAPTER 7 A TOUR OF THE CELL

Section E: Other Membranous Organelles
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of cells 2. Peroxisomes generate and degrade H2O2 in performing various metabolic functions
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of cells
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the organelles that convert energy to forms that cells can use for work. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, generating ATP from the catabolism of sugars, fats, and other fuels in the presence of oxygen. Chloroplasts, found in plants and eukaryotic algae, are the site of photosynthesis.
They convert solar energy to chemical energy and synthesize new organic compounds from Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings CO and H O.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the endomembrane system. Their proteins come primarily from free ribosomes in the cytosol and a few from their own ribosomes. Both organelles have small quantities of DNA that direct the synthesis of the polypeptides produced by these internal ribosomes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and reproduce as semiautonomous organelles.
2. THE CELL : basic unit of

structure and function
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the endomembrane system. Their proteins come primarily from free ribosomes in the cytosol and a few from their own ribosomes. Both organelles have small quantities of DNA that direct the synthesis of the polypeptides produced by these internal ribosomes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and reproduce as semiautonomous organelles.
Fig. 7.17
Almost all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria.

There may be one very large mitochondrion or hundreds to thousands in individual mitochondria. The number of mitochondria is correlated with aerobic metabolic activity. A typical mitochondrion is 1-10 microns long. Mitochondria are quite dynamic: moving, changing shape, and dividing.
Mitochondria have a smooth outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane, the cristae.
This creates a fluid-filled space between them. The cristae present ample surface area for the enzymes that synthesize ATP.
The inner membrane encloses the mitochondrial matrix, a fluid-filled space with DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes.
The chloroplast is one of several members of a generalized class of plant structures called plastids.
Amyloplasts store starch in roots and tubers. Chromoplasts store pigments for fruits and flowers.
The chloroplast produces sugar via photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts gain their color from high levels of the green pigment chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts measure about 2 microns x 5 microns and are found in leaves and other green structures of plants and in eukaryotic algae.
The processes in the chloroplast are separated from the cytosol by two membranes. Inside the innermost membrane is a fluidfilled space, the stroma, in which float membranous sacs, the thylakoids.
The stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes for part of photosynthesis. The thylakoids, flattened sacs, are stacked into grana and are critical for converting light to chemical energy.
Thylakoid-flattened sac Grana-stacks of thylakoid Stroma-fluid filled space
Fig. 7.18
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are dynamic structures.

reproduce themselves by pinching in two.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are mobile and move around the cell along tracks in the cytoskeleton.
Mitochondria and chloroplast compared
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen
An intermediate product of this process is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a poison, but the peroxisome has another enzyme that converts H2O2 to water. Some peroxisomes break fatty acids down to smaller molecules that are transported to mitochondria for fuel. Others detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds. Specialized peroxisomes, glyoxysomes, convert the fatty acids in seeds to sugars, an easier energy and carbon source to transport.
2. Peroxisomes generate and degrade H2O2 in performing various metabolic functions
Peroxisomes are bounded by a single membrane. Formed by incorporation of proteins and lipids from the cytosol. They split in two when they reach a certain size.
Fig. 7.19
Peroxisomes- membrane-enclosed (from rat liver )
Assembled from proteins synthesized in free ribosomes like chloroplast and mitochondria Contain various enzymes Carry out oxid. that produce H2O2 hydrogen peroxide
H2O2 decomposed by Catalase to water. In seeds: fatty acids sugars during germination
Formed by incorporation of proteins from free ribosomes and lipids from cytosol
1. Peroxisomes 2. Mitochondrion 3. Chloroplast
Also from their own proteins synthesized in their own ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
: The
cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments/ extending throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotes
Microtubule
0.25 m
Microfilaments
Structural framework for the cell Serves as a scaffold determining shape Resp for movement
: The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments/ fibers that organizes structures and activities
Less rigid Less permanent Dynamic,continually reorganized eg. In cell division
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation

The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along monorails provided by the cytoskeleton
Table 6-1
10 m
10 m
10 m
Column of tubulin dimers Keratin proteins Actin subunit

25 nm 7 nm
Fibrous subunit (keratins coiled together)

812 nm
Tubulin dimer
Table 6-1a
10 m
Column of tubulin dimers
25 nm
Tubulin dimer
Fig. 6-21 Transport membrane vesicles
ATP
Vesicle Receptor for motor protein
Motor proteins can walk the vesicles .
Involves interaction of motor proteins with Motor protein Microtubule cytoskeleton (ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
(a) Microtubule Vesicles
Motor proteins attach to the receptors on vesicles along microtubules
0.25 m
(b)
Fig. 6-23
Direction of swimming
Undulates, drives cell in same direction
Flagella and cilia are locomotory organelles, they are microtubules extensions that project from cells
(a) Motion of flagella
Bending of flagella and cilia by gripping & sliding microt. Past each other. Direction of organisms movement
Power stroke Recovery stroke
5 m
Back and forth motion

(b) Motion of cilia 15 m
Table 6-1b
10 m
Actin subunit
7 nm
Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers
Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells This streaming speeds distribution of materials within the cell In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

Table 6-1c
5 m
Keratin proteins Fibrous subunit (keratins coiled together)

812 nm
Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities
Cell Walls of Plants

The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls

The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:

Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall
Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells
Ca 80 Cellulose,molecules associate to form a microfibril
Fig. 6-28
Secondary cell wall Primary cell wall Middle lamella
1 m
Central vacuole Cytosol Plasma membrane Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins
Fig. 6-30a
Collagen
(embedded in a web of proteoglycan

Fibronectin
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Proteoglycan complex
(attaches ECM to integrins)

Integrins
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments
CYTOPLASM
Functions of the ECM:

Support Adhesion Movement Regulation
Intercellular Junctions
Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact There are several types of intercellular junctions
Plasmodesmata Tight junctions Desmosomes Gap junctions
Fig. 6-28
Secondary cell wall Primary cell wall Middle lamella
1 m
Central vacuole Cytosol Plasma membrane Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell
Cells walls are perforated with channels
Gap junctions
Proteinaceous tubes that connect adjacent cells. These tubes allow material to pass from one cell to the next without having to pass through the plasma membranes of the cells.
Dissolved substances such as ions or glucose can pass through the gap junctions

Bio 11 - Cell Structure

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Bio 11 - Cell Structure

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FORMULATION OF THE CELL THEORY

THE MODERN TENETS OF CELL THEORY

THE CELL : basic unit of

THE CELLplant cell

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Protists, fungi , plants, animals (Eukaryotic)

Distinguishing features of cell type

Sugar-phosphate backbone Nitrogen bases

Nucleotide= base, sugar, phosphate

DNA molecule: composed of 2 nucleotide chains, twisted in a double helix

Flow of genetic information

Type of protein Structural

Defensive Transport proteins

Coordination of activities Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Actin and myosin for muscular movement

Heritable information carried by DNA

Nucleotides: Basic chemical units of DNA and RNA,

Flow of genetic information

Robert Hookes simple microscope

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Internal membranes compartmentalize the functions of a eukaryotic cell

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The nucleus contains a eukaryotic cells genetic library

Sugar-phosphate backbone Nitrogen bases

Nucleotide= base, sugar, phosphate

DNA molecule: composed of 2 nucleotide chains, twisted in a double helix

Flow of genetic information

Type of protein Structural

Defensive Transport proteins

Coordination of activities Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Actin and myosin for muscular movement

Heritable information carried by DNA

Nucleotides: Basic chemical units of DNA and RNA,

Flow of genetic information

Protists, fungi , plants, animals (Eukaryotic)

Distinguishing features of cell type

Sugar-phosphate backbone Nitrogen bases

Nucleotide= base, sugar, phosphate

DNA molecule: composed of 2 nucleotide chains, twisted in a double helix

Flow of genetic information

Type of protein Structural

Defensive Transport proteins

Coordination of activities Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Actin and myosin for muscular movement

Heritable information carried by DNA

Nucleotides: Basic chemical units of DNA and RNA,

Flow of genetic information

Accelerate chem rx support

Protection against certain microoorganisms

where Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized

rRNA combine with proteins from cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits

Ribosomes build a cells proteins

the membranes are even modified during life.

There are two, regions of ER that differ in structure and function.

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Proteins on free ribosomes in cytosol

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Vesicles form cnd leave Golgi carry proteins

Golgi-flattened membranous sac

Lysosomes-digestive compartment, carry out intracellular digestion

Lysosome digesting food

Lysosome breaking down damaged organelles

Raphide encased in carbohydrates

Review organelle relationships