Basics of cytology

BIOLOGY OF THE CELL

...Life begins with cells

Progenitor cells
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One creator ... One Grand Designer
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 The Cell
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Fundamental / Basic subunit of life

First verified by Robert Hooke by examining a CORK
 Cellulae (Latin for small rooms)

Cell theory
 By Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
“all organisms are composed of one or more cells (basic unit
of life); cells arise from pre-existing cells”
 Diversity and Commonality
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Morphology
Ability to move
Stability of structures
Metabolic activities and requirements
Multicellularity vs. Colony formation in unicellular
organisms
Internal organization
 Prokaryotic
 Eukaryotic
 Diversity and Commonality
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Eubacteria (with rapidly dividing cells)

Lactococcus lactis
Used to produce cheese such as Roquefort, Brie, and
Camembert.
 Diversity and Commonality
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A mass of archaebacteria
Methanosarcina
produce their energy by converting carbon dioxide
and hydrogen gas to methane
Some species that live in the rumen of cattle give rise
to >150 liters of methane gas/day
 Diversity and Commonality
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Blood cells
 Erythrocytes
 Leukocytes
 Thrombocytes
 Diversity and Commonality
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Large single cells:

fossilized dinosaur eggs
 Diversity and Commonality
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A colonial single-celled green alga

Volvox aureus
The large spheres are made up of many individual
cells, visible as blue or green dots
The yellow masses inside are daughter colonies, each
made up of many cells
 Diversity and Commonality
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Purkinje neuron of the cerebellum

Can form more than a hundred thousand connections
with other cells through the branched network of
dendrites
Made visible by introduction of a fluorescent protein
Cell body is the bulb at the bottom
 Diversity and Commonality
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Cells can form an epithelial sheet, (slice through

intestine shown here. Each finger-like tower of cells)
A villus, contains many cells in a continuous sheet
 Diversity and Commonality
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Plant cells are fixed firmly in place in vascular plants

supported by a rigid cellulose skeleton
Spaces between the cells are joined into tubes for
transport of water and food.
Diversity and Commonality
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 What is a cell?

1. Degree of organization
1. Multicellular
2. Unicellular
2. Ability to exchange materials with their
surroundings
3. Ability to transform energy
4. Ability to grow
5. Ability to reproduce independent progeny
(offspring)
 Basic parts
1. Cytoplasmic /plasma
membrane
2. Nuclear region
3. Cytoplasm
 Prokaryotic cell
Cytoplasmic membrane
 Selective
 Semi-permeable  Functions:
 Bi-lipid ETC
DNA synthesis & Cellular
reproduction
Secretion of intracellular
enzymes
Nutrient transport (simple
diffusion, osmosis, active
transport)
Cell wall synthesis
Chemotaxis
 Eukaryotic cell
Cytoplasmic membrane
 Selective
 Semi-permeable  Functions:
 Bi-lipid Secretion of intracellular
enzymes
Nutrient transport (simple
diffusion, osmosis, active
transport)
Cell wall synthesis
Chemotaxis
Endocytosis
 Prokaryotic cell

Nuclear Region
 Genetic material
 DNA
 Called “nucleoid” (not bound by a membrane)
 Eukaryotic cell

Nuclear Region
 Genetic material
 DNA
 Membrane-bound
 Prokaryotic cell

Cytoplasm
 Everything contained within the cytoplasmic membrane except
the nuclear region
 Contains ribosomes & sometimes plasmids
 No membrane bound organelles
 Contains inclusions/inclusion granules
 Eukaryotic cell

Cytoplasm
 Everything contained within the cytoplasmic membrane except
the nuclear region
 Contains ribosomes
 Membrane bound organelles:

Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi membranes / apparatus
Cytoskeleton
 Prokaryotic cell

Additional structures
 Cell wall
 Capsule; Glycocalyx; Slime layer; S layer
 Fimbriae and Pili
 Flagella
 Axial filaments
 Endospore
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
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Phospholipid bilayer
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Molecules of Cells
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 Mitosis
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Prophase - chromatin condenses, nucleoli

disappear, sister chromatids are visible, spindle
begins to form as centrosomes move away from one
another.
 Mitosis
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Prometaphase - nuclear envelope fragments,

spindle increases in size and spread, microtubules
from one side of the spindle attach to the
kinetochore of one of the sister chromatids, while
microtubules from the other side of the spindle attach
to the kinetochore of the othe sister chromatid.
 Mitosis
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Metaphase - chromosomes line up, single file, on the

metaphase plate (an imaginary line in the middle of
the cell)
 Mitosis
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Anaphase - sister chromatids uncouple and pull

apart, one sister chromatid (now called a full-fledged
"chromosome"!) moves towards one side ("pole") of
the cell, while the other sister chromatid moves
towards the other side. Microtubules attached to the
kinetochores of each chromosome shorten, thereby
pulling the chromosomes poleward. Microtubules
that are NOT attached to kinetochores lengthen,
thereby elongating the cell.
 Mitosis
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Telophase - daughter nuclei begin to form, DNA

begins to "de-condense".
 Meiosis
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Prophase I - chromatin condenses, nucleoli

disappear, sister chromatids are visible, spindle
begins to form as centrosomes move away from one
another. Homologous chromosomes synapse(come
together) to form a tetrad (XX) andcrossing
over(fragments of homologous chromosomes switch
places - so the homologue that originated in an
individual's mother now has portions of the father's
chomosome attached, and vice versa!)
 Meiosis
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Metaphase I - chromosomes line up, AS TETRADS

(homologous chromosomes line up as PAIRS rather
than in single file as occurred in mitosis), on the
metaphase plate (an imaginary line in the middle of
the cell)
 Meiosis
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Anaphase I - homologous chromosomes pull apart

but sister chromatids remain attached, one
homologous chromosome moves towards one side
("pole") of the cell, while the other homologue moves
towards the other side. Microtubules attached to the
kinetochores of each chromosome shorten, thereby
pulling the chromosomes poleward. Microtubules
that are NOT attached to kinetochores lengthen,
thereby elongating the cell.
 Meiosis
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Telophase I - daughter nuclei begin to form. Note

that now, the two daughter cells have HALF the
number of chromosomes as the original parent cell!!
 Meiosis
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Prophase II - chromatin condenses, nucleoli

disappear, sister chromatids are visible, spindle
begins to form as centrosomes move away from one
another.
 Meiosis
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Metaphase II - chromosomes line up, single file, on

the metaphase plate (an imaginary line in the
middle of the cell)
 Meiosis
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Anaphase II - sister chromatids uncouple and pull

apart, one sister chromatid (now called a full-fledged
"chromosome"!) moves towards one side ("pole") of
the cell, while the other sister chromatid moves
towards the other side. Microtubules attached to the
kinetochores of each chromosome shorten, thereby
pulling the chromosomes poleward. Microtubules
that are NOT attached to kinetochores lengthen,
thereby elongating the cell.
 Meiosis
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Telophase II - daughter nuclei begin to form, DNA

begins to "de-condense".
Comparison
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