I.

1)

Historical background
Definitions

II.

Cohesion according to Halliday and Hasan

1)

Grammatical cohesion
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Repetition Synonymy Collocation

2)

Lexical cohesion

TEXT LINGUISTICS
A branch of linguistics which studies spoken or written TEXTs, e.g. a descriptive passage, a scene in a play, a conversation. It is concerned, for instance, with the way the parts of a text are organized and related to one another in order to form a meaningful whole.*

* Richards, C. J.& Schmidt, R. 2002. Dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics. London: Longman.

A text is an extended structure of syntactic units [i.e. text as super-sentence] such as words, groups, and clauses and textual units, that is marked by both coherence among the elements and completion. [Whereas] A non-text consists of random sequences of linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs, or sections in any temporal and/or spatial extension. *
*Werlich, E. 1976. A text grammar of English. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer.p30.

A naturally occurring manifestation of language, i.e. as a communicative language event in a context. The SURFACE TEXT is the set of expressions actually used; these expressions make some knowledge EXPLICIT, while other knowledge remains IMPLICIT, though still applied during processing. *
*De Beaugrande, R., & Dressler, W. U. 1981.Introduction to Text Linguistics . London : Longman.

 SLOW CARS HELD UP

 a text is a set of mutually relevant communicative functions, structured in such a way as to achieve an overall rhetorical purpose *

*Hatim, Basil & Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman

[A term] used in linguistics to refer to any passage- spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole [.] A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence; and it is not defined by its size [.] A text is best regarded as a SEMANTIC unit; a unit not of form but of meaning. *
*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.1

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.2

Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.3

I have heard some strange stories In my time. But this one was perhaps the strangest.

GRAMMATICAL COHESION

REFERENCE
SUBSTITUTION ELLEPSIS
CONJUNCTION

REFERENCE
Is used to describe the different ways in which entities things , people, events are referred to within texts
Doctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of rain. He stepped in a puddle right up to his middle and never went there again

O REFERENC

EXOPHORIC

ENDOPHORIC

ANAPHORI C

CATAPHOR IC

ENDOPHRIC REFERENCE
When a word refers back to somebody or something that has already been mentioned, this is called anaphoric reference. References Forward are called cataphoric references.

CATAPHORIC

" he comes, our awardwinning host...it's John Doe!"

ANAPHORIC

The water system is failing because of old pipes and shortage of qualified technicians to repair them. These are the reasons why change is necessary

EXOPHRIC REFERENCE

The book is over there For he is a jolly good fellow and so say all of us

Three boys are playing football and one boy kikcs the ball and it goes through the window and the ball breaks the window and the boys are looking at it and a man comes out and shouts at them because they have broken the window so they run away and then that lady looks out of her window and she tells the boys off They are playing football and he kicks it and it goes through there it breaks the window and they are looking at it and he comes out and shouts at them because they have broken it so they run away and then she looks out and she tells them off

"Exophoric reference contributes to the creation of text , in that it links the language with the context of situation; but it does not contribute to the integration of one passage with another so that the two together form part of the same text *
*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.35

REFERENCE
Personnal reference

Demonstrative reference

Comparative reference

PERSONAL REFERENCE
This often involves the use of the person pronouns (he, she, it or they).
My father is a naturalized British citizen. He was born in Bombay.

If the buyer wants to know the condition of the property , he has to have another survey carried out on his own behalf *
* The legal Side of Buying a House, ConsumersAssociation

REFERENCE

Personnal reference Demonstrative reference Comparative reference

DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE
He couldnt carry it on his own, but he knew there was no one around who could help him. That was the problem he faced. These are my favourite colors.

Leave that there and come here

REFERENCE

Personnal reference Demonstrative reference Comparative reference

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE

GENERAL COMPARATIVE

PARTICULAR COMpARATIVE

GENARAL COMPARISON
IDENTITY SIMILARITY DIFFEREN CE

Same Equal Identical Identically

Such Similar So similarly likewise

Other Different Else Differently

 It is the same cat as the one we

saw yesterday
I bought shoes similar to yours

This is a different exercise from the one we did last week

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE

GENERAL COMPARATIVE

PARTICULAR COMPARATIVE

PARTICULAR COMPARISON

NUMERATIV E

EPITHET

MORE FEWER LESS FURTHER ADDITION AL

COMPARATIV E ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE

We are demanding higher living standards There are twice as many people there as the last time

SUBSTITUTION

Substitution is replacement of one linguistic item by another .

My axe is too blunt, i must get a sharper one You think kriss already knows?- I think everebody does.

SUBSTITUTI ON
VERBAL NOMINAL

CLAUSAL

NOMINAL

I have heard some strange stories in my time. But this was perhaps the strangest one of all.

A: Ill have two poached eggs on toast, please. B: Ill have the same

VERBAL

The words did not come the same as they used to do

I dont know how to fix this tap and i dont think you do either

CLAUSAL

SO

NOT

Is there going earthquake? - It says so

to

be

an

ELLIPSIS
When elements are omitted from sentence it is called ellipsis. This becomes a cohesive device if an earlier part of the text allow us to deduce the missing elements.

SOMETHING UNSAID

Unsaid

Understood

neverthless

(A)Where are you going? (B) To town. The younger child was very outgoing, the older much more reserved.

ELLEPSIS

VERBAL

NOMINAL

NOMINAL

Four other Oysters followed them, And yet another four

VERBAL

-Have you been swimming ? -Yes I have -Did you kill the man ? -No, i didnt

CONJUNCTION

Conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses. The most basic but least cohesive is the conjunction and.

Transitions are conjunctions that add cohesion to text and include then, however, in fact, and consequently. Conjunctions can also be implicit and deduced from correctly interpreting the text

Johnny has promised to turn

over a new leaf and meet his

deadlines. Although I have yet

to see any proof of this change.

Lexical Cohesion is a linguistic device which helps to create unity of text and discourse. In contrast to grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion [] is the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary. *

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.274

1 - Repetition 2 -Synonymy 3 - Collocation

Repetion or Reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the REPITITION of a lexical item at one end of a scale; THE USE OF GENERAL WORD TO REFER BACK TO A LEXICAL ITEM, at the other end of the scale; and a number of things in between the use of a synonym or superordinate

Example:

Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy

SYNONYMY

According to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (Sixth Edition, 2000), synonymy refers to

[] the fact of two or more words or expressions having the same meaning.

[] lexical cohesion results from the choice of a lexical item that is in some sense synonymous with a preceding one []

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p.1

1. there is a boy climbing that tree The lad is going to fall if he does not take care. 2. He looked nervously at the damage to the car. Then gingerly ran his fingers along the scratches and indentations along its side 3. David walked towards the door. David ambled beside him.

He was startled by a noise from behind. It was the noise of trotting horses. The sound of the cavalry grew nearer.

Seven blackbirds began to sing in the morning. These birds were singing beautifully.

Hyponymy

Describes a specificgeneral relationship between lexical items

1. Then they began to meet vegetation prickly cactus-like plants and coarse grass 2. He brought her some roses. Those flowers have a beautiful smell.

HYPONYMY

Flower (superordinate)

Rose (hyponym of flower) (co-hyponym of tulip)

Tulip

Daffodil

Etc.

Meronymy:
Describes a part-whole relationship between lexical items

- She knelt down and looked along the passage into the loveliest garden you ever saw. How she longed to [] wander about among those beds of bright flowers and those cool fountains. - I dont like that bicycle. The saddle is very uncomfortable.

Antonymy:
Describes a relationship between lexical items that have opposite meanings.

[] one of the factors on which we build our expectations of what is to come next. *

*Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman, p 50

[] each occurrence of a lexical item carries with it its own textual history, a particular collocational environment that has been built up in the course of the creation of the text and that will provide the context within which the item will be incarnated on this particular occasion. (Halliday, 1976:
289).

The sementic relationships of the lexical items used in the text are very important to the achievement of lexical cohesion

A little fat man of Bombay Was smoking one very hot day But a bird called a snipe Flew away with his pipe, Which vexed the fat man of Bombay

Examples Of Pares Sharing The Same Lexical Environment :

- Laugh/jock - blade/ sharp. - garden/dig. - ill/doctor. - try/succeed. - bee/honey. - door/window.

Every lexical item may enter into a cohesive relation but by itself, it carries no indication whether it is functioning cohesively or not; it is cohesive only when it is a part of whole text, not as it is standing alone

collocation\Collocations - . mp4

 De Beaugrande, R., & Dressler, W. U. 1981.Introduction to Text Linguistics . London : Longman.

Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. Longman Hatim, Basil & Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman. Werlich, E. (1976) A text grammar of English. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer.
Richards, C. J.& Schmidt, R. 2002. Dictionary of language teaching & applied linguistics. London: Longman.