Chapter 18 Direct Currentstudent

18.
1 Electrical Conduction
18.2 Ohms law and Resistivity
18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal
resistance and potential difference
18.5 Electrical energy and power
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
18.7 Kirchhoffs Laws
18.8 Potential divider
18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone Bridge
TOPIC 18 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
1
2
18.1 Electrical Conduction
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Describe microscopic model of current.

b) Define and use electric current formulae,
At the end of this lesson, the students should
be able to :
dQ
I
dt
=
3
Conductors contain many free electrons and move randomly.
If a continuous wire is connected to the terminal of a battery, the
potential difference between the terminals of the battery sets up an
electric field inside the wire and parallel to it, directed from the positive
toward the negative terminal.
Thus free electrons are attracted into the positive terminal (are
forced to drift in one direction).
This direction is in the direction opposite to the field, E.
The velocity of these free electrons is called drift velocity.

battery
The drift velocity v
d
of the free electrons is the mean velocity
of the electrons parallel to the direction of the electric field
when a potential difference is applied.

Consider the circuit such as that in figure below, the battery
creates an electric field within and parallel to the wire,
directed from the positive toward the negative terminal.

wire
battery
4
Thus free electrons at one end of the wire are attracted into
the positive terminal, and at the same time, electrons leave
the negative terminal of the battery and enter the wire at the
other end.
There is a continuous flow of electrons through the wire that
begins as soon as the wire is connected to both terminals.
However, when the conventions of positive and negative
charge were advised two centuries ago, it was assumed that
positive charge flowed in a wire.
For nearly all purposes, positive charge flowing in one
direction is exactly equivalent to negative charge flowing in
the opposite direction.
Today we still use the historical convention of positive current
when discussing the direction of a current. So when we speak
of the current in a circuit, we mean the direction positive
charge would flow.

5
Electric Current, I
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge that
passes through the wires full cross section at any point per
unit time ( the rate of charge flow through a conductor).
The average current , is defined as . I
Q
I
t
A
=
A
The instanstaneous current is defined as
dQ
I
dt
=
The steady current is defined as
Q
I
t
=
Unit of I is A (ampere).
6
Example 18.1
A wire carries a current of 1.5 A.
a) How much charge flows through a point in the wire
in 5.0 s
b) How many electrons cross a given area of the wire
in 1.0 s ?
7
8
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) State and use Ohms Law.

b) Define and use resistivity formulae,

be able to :
RA
l
=
18.2 Ohms Law and Resistivity
9
18.2 Resistivity and Ohms Law
Ohms Law
Ohms law states that the potential difference across a
conductor, V is directly proportional to the current, I
through it, if its physical conditions and the temperature
are constant.
V I
constant
Ohm's Law
V
I
V
R V IR
I
=
= =
18.2 Ohms Law and Resistivity
V
I
constant

=
=
V
I
V
R
I
Ohmic conductors are conductors which obey Ohms
law. Examples: pure metals. (Figure A)
Non-ohmic conductors do not obey Ohms law.
Example: junction diode. (Figure B)
Figure A Figure B
V
I
10
11
Resistivity
Resistivity is a measure of a materials ability to oppose
the flow of electric current through the material.
Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a sample of the
material of cross-sectional area 1 m
2
and of length 1m.
It is a constant value.
Its formulae is given by .

Its unit is m.
Its value depends on the material.
All conductors have smaller resistivity.
Insulators have larger resistivity.

RA
l
=
where l = length of the conductor (m)
A = area of cross-section of the conductor (m
-2
)
Example 18.2
A wire (length=2.0 m, diameter=1.0 mm) has a resistance of
0.45 . What is the resistivity of the material used to make the
wire ?
12
Example 18.3
What voltage will be measured across a 1000- resistor in a
circuit if we determine that there is a current of 2.50 mA flowing
through it ?
13
14
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Explain the effect of temperature on electrical
resistance in metals and superconductors.
b) Define and use temperature coefficient of resistivity, .
c) Apply resistance R= R
o
[1 + (T-T
o
)].
be able to :
18.3 Variation of Resistance with
Temperature
15
18.3 Variation of Resistance with
Temperature
Metal
The resistance of a metal (conductor) depends on
a) the nature of the material,
(, resistivity)
b) the size of the conductor,
(l, the length and A, cross-sectional area)
c) the temperature of the conductor.
The resistance of metals increases with increasing
temperature. (T, R)
As temperature increases, the ions of the conductor
vibrate with greater amplitude.
16
More collisons occur between free electrons and ions.
18.3 Variation of Resistance with Temperature
These electrons are slowed down thus increases the
resistance.
The resistance of a metal can be represented by the
equation below
R=R
o
[1+(T)] , R-R
o
= R
R=R
o
+T
where R = the resistance at temperature T,
R
o
= the resistance at temperature T
o
= 20
o
C or 0
o
C,
o = the temperature coefficient of resistance (
o
C
-1
)
17
is a constant value and it is depends on the material.
o
R
R
T
A
o =
A
Temperature coefficient of resistance , is defined as the
fractional change in resistance per Celsius degree.

Example 18.4
A platinum wire has a resistance of 0.50 at 0
o
C. It is
placed in a water bath, where its resistance rises to a
final value of 0.60 . What is the temperature of the
bath ? ( = 3.93 x 10
-3

o
C
-1
)
18
Example 18.5
A narrow rod of pure iron has a resistance of 0.10 at 20
o
C.
What is its resistance at 50
o
C ? ( = 5.0 x 10
-3

o
C
-1
)
19
18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
20
Superconductor
As the temperature decreases, the resistance at first
decreases smoothly.
(T, R)
At a certain critical temperature T
c
(4.2 K for mercury)
the resistance suddenly drops to zero.
R
T
metal
R
T
superconductor
Graph of resistance R against temperature T
21
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Define emf , .
b) Explain the difference between emf of a battery and
potential difference across the battery terminals.
c) Apply formulae V= Ir.
be able to :
18.4 Electromotive Force (emf), Internal
Resistance and Potential Difference
22
18.4 Electromotive Force (emf), Internal
Resistance And Potential Difference
The e.m.f of a source is the p.d across the terminals of
the source in open circuit (no current is flowing, I = 0).
The e.m.f of a source is the work done per unit charge.
The e.m.f of a source is defined as the electrical energy
that generated by a source so that the charges can flow
from one terminal to another terminal of the source
through any resistor.
The e.m.f of a battery is the potential difference across
its terminal when it is not connected to a circuit.
What is electromotive force,emf ( or )?
SI unit : Volt (V)
23
18.4 Electromotive Force (emf), Internal Resistance and Potential Difference
What is internal resistance?
In a cell or battery, the negative ions are attracted by
anode and the positive ions are attracted by the cathode.
The flow of these ions produces current.
However the collisions between the ions and the
recombination of opposite ions reduce the flow of
current. This resistance in the cell is called internal
resistance, r.
Suppose a battery of emf, and internal resistance r
is connected to an external resistor, R.
Total resistance in the circuit is (R + r).
24
The e.m.f of this battery is given as
( )
ab
I R r
Ir IR
Ir V
c = +
c = +
c = +
ab dc
V V =
V
ab
= V
b
V
a
= terminal voltage (potential difference across
the battery terminals)
R = external resistance
r = internal resistance
25
In a circuit diagram, this symbol
represents a resistor in a circuit that dissipates electrical
energy.
A straight line represents a conducting wire
with negligible resistance.
26
ab
ab
Ir V
V Ir
c = +
= c
Notes:
a) V
ab
< when the battery of emf is connected to the
external circuit with resistance R.
b) V
ab
> when the battery of emf is being charged by
other battery.
c) V
ab
= when the battery of emf has no internal
resistance (r =0) and connected to the external circuit
with resistance R..
27
terminal voltage (potential
difference across terminals)
emf
potential difference
across internal resistance
Example 18.6
28
A battery with a terminal voltage of 11.5 V when delivering
0.50 A has an internal resistance of 0.10 . What is its emf?
Example 18.7
29
The battery in a circuit has an emf of 9.0 V. It is attached to a
resistor and an ammeter that shows a current of 0.10 A. If a
voltmeter across the batterys terminals reads 8.9 V, what is
its internal resistance ?
18.4 Electromotive Force (Emf), Internal Resistance and Potential Difference
30
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Apply formula P=IV and electrical energy, W=VIt.
be able to :
18.5 Electrical Energy and Power
31
According to the conversation of energy , all the energy
delivered to the charge carriers by the battery must be lost
in the circuit .
That is, a charge carrier traversing the circuit must lose
all the electrical potential energy it gained from the battery
when that carrier returns to the negative terminal of the
battery.
Electric energy is useful to us because it can be transformed
into other forms of energy (thermal energy, light).
The electrical (potential) energy, W is the energy gained by
the charge Q from a voltage source (battery) having a
terminal voltage V.
W= QV (the work done by the source on the charge)
But Q=It, then W=VI t
Unit : Joule (J)
The rate of energy delivered to the external circuit by the
battery is called the electric power given by,

Unit : watt ( 1 W = 1J/s)
32
@
,
W QV
P Q I t
t t
P I V P I
= = =
= = c
33
The energy dissipated per second in an electric device
(rate of energy dissipated) is given as

for any device
W VIt
P VI
t t
= = =
A passive resistor is a resistor which converts all the
electrical energy into heat. For example, a metal wire.

2
2
but
or
P VI V IR
V
P I R P
R
= =
= =
only for resistor
Calculate the resistance of a 40 W automobile headlight
designed for 12 V?
34
Example 18.8
The current through a refrigerator of resistance 12 is 13
A. What is the power consumed by the refrigerator?
35
Example 18.9
An electric iron with a 15-ohm heating element operates at
120 V. How many joules of energy does the iron convert to
heat in 1.0 h ?
36
Example 18.10
37
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Deduce and calculate effective resistance of resistors
in series and parallel.
be able to :
38
1
R
2
R
3
R
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
I
I
Resistors in Series
The properties of resistors in series are given below.
o The same current I flows through each resistor
where

3 2 1
I I I I = = =
battery , r=0
39
o The sum of the voltages around a circuit loop (that
is, the gains and losses with + and - ,respectively) is
zero.

(Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance)

( )
( )
1 2 3
0
i
i
i
i
V V
V V
V V V V
=
=
= + +
total potential difference

;
2 2
IR V = ;
3 3
IR V =
1 1
bur ; V IR =
3 2 1 eq
IR IR IR IR + + =
eq
IR V =
3 2 1 eq
R R R R + + =
where
resistance ) (effective equivalent :
eq
R
40
Resistors in Parallel
1
R
3
R
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
I
I
2
R
2
I
1
I
3
I The properties of resistors in
parallel are given below.
o There is the same potential
difference, V across each
resistor where
3 2 1
V V V V = = =
o Charge is conserved, therefore
the total current I in the circuit
is given by

3 2 1
I I I I + + =
41
;
2
2
R
V
I = ;
3
3
R
V
I =
1
1
but ;
V
I
R
=
3 2 1 eq
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
+ + =
eq
R
V
I =
3 2 1 eq
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
+ + =
42
Example 18.10
O .0 4
O .0 2
V 0 6 .
O 12
Calculate :
a. the total resistance of the circuit.
b. the total current in the circuit.
c. the potential difference across 4.0 O resistor.
43
Solution 18.10
O .0 4
O .0 2
V 0 6 .
O 12
44
Solution 18.10
b. Total current,
c. The potential difference across R
1
=2.0 O is

Therefore the potential difference across R
3
=4.0 O
is given by
45
Example 18.11
For the circuits shown below, calculate the equivalent
resistance between points x and y.
O .0 3
O .0 1
O .0 1
x
y
O .0 2
O .0 2
O .0 18
O .0 16
O .0 8
y x
O .0 9
O .0 16
O .0 6
O .0 20
(0.79 ) (8.0 )
46
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) State and use Kirchhoffs Laws.
be able to :
47
Kirchhoffs first law (junction/current law)

It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction of a circuit is zero,

0
or
in out
I
I I
=
=

48
18.7 Kirchhoffs Laws.
Kirchhoffs second law (loop/voltage law)

IR c =

It states that the algebraic sum of the voltages across
all of the elements of any closed loop is zero.
or
It states that in any closed loop, the algebraic sum of
e.m.fs is equal to the algebraic sum of the products
of current and resistance.
Sign convention
I
R
+IR
across resistor
-IR
+
-
across battery
49
Example 18.12
Using Kirchhoffs rules, find the current in each resistor.
R
1
= 10 R
2
= 20
2
10 V c =
1
20 V c =
50
Solution 18.12
R
1
= 10 R
2
= 20
2
10 V c =
1
20 V c =
Step
1. Draw current. (arbitrary)
2. Draw loop. (arbitrary)
3. Apply Kirchhoffs laws.

( )
0 , I IR = c =

I
51
Example 18.13
Apply Kirchhoffs rules to the circuit in figure below and find
the current in each resistor.
R
1
= 3.0
R
2
= 3.0
R
3
= 3.0
R
4
= 3.0
2
2 0 V . c =
1
2 0 V . c =
52
Solution 18.13
R
1
= 3.0
R
2
= 4.0
R
3
= 5.0
R
4
= 2.0
2
3 0 V . c =
1
6 0 V . c =
I
2
nd
KL,
( ) IR c =

53
Example 18.14
Find the current in each resistor in the circuit shown below.
R
2
= 4.0
R
3
= 4.0
R
1
= 4.0
3
5 0 V . c =
1
10 V c =
2
5 0 V . c =
I
1
=3.75 A up, I
2
= 1.25 A left, I
3
= 1.25 A right
54
Example 18.15
A cell of e.m.f. 4.0 V and internal resistance 1.0 is
connected in series with another cell of e.m.f. 2.5 internal
resistance 0.5 in a closed loop in such a way that the
current in the loop is minimum. Draw a circuit diagram to
show how the cells are connected and calculate the current.
(I = 1.0 A)
55
Example 18.16
Calculate the currents I
1
,I
2
and I
3
. Neglect the internal
resistance in each battery.
O = 1 R
1
O = .1 0 R
3
V 15
1
=
O = .5 0 R
2
V 10
2
=
V 0 3
3
. =
1
I
2
I
3
I
; . A 69 17 I
1
= ; . A 62 14 I
2
= A 07 3 I
3
. =
56
Example 18.17
Given c
1
=8 V, R
2
=2 O, R
3
=3 O,
R
1
=1 O and I=3 A. Ignore the internal resistance in
each battery.
Calculate
a. the currents I
1
and I
2
.
b. the e.m.f. c
2
.
Ans. : 1 A, 4 A , 17 V
3
R
1
2
R
2
1
I
2
I
I
1
R
57
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Explain the principle of a potential divider.
b) Apply equation of potential divider
be able to :
1
1
1 2
.
R
V V
R R
| |
=
|
+
\ .
58
A potential divider is used to tap a fraction of the voltage
supplied by a source of e.m.f.
Potential divider circuit
1
1
1 2
=
+
R
V V
R R
Potential difference across l
1
or R
1
is

V
I
2
V
1
V
1
R
I
2
R
eq
R
V
I =
Two resistors are connected in series.
The current flows in each
resistor is the same ;
1 2
,
eq
R R R = +
2 1
R R
V
I
+
=
1 1
IR V =
59
18.8 Potential divider.
V
I
2
l
1
l
I
b a
c
2
V
1
V
V
l l
l
V
2 1
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
l
R
A
=
Potential difference across l
1
is

1
1
1 2
=
+
R
V V
R R
Resistance R
1
and R
2
are replaced by a uniform
homogeneous wire as shown in figure below.
60
Example 18.18
Resistors of 3.0 and 6.0 are connected in series to a
12.0 V battery of negligible internal resistance. What are the
potential difference across the (a) 3.0 and (b) 6.0
resistors ?
4.0 V, 8.0 V
61
SUBTOPIC :
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
a) Explain the principle of potentiometer and Wheatstone
Bridge and their applications.
b) Use related equations.
be able to :
18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone
Bridge
62
A potentiometer is mainly used to measure potentiometer.
It consists of a uniform wire.
Basically a potentiometer circuit consists of a uniform wire
AB of length 100.0cm, connected in series to a driver cell
with emf V of negligible internal resistance.
V
I
I
B
A
C
x
V
I
G
+ -
I
(Unknown Voltage)
Jockey
(Driver cell -accumulator)
Potentiometer
63
The potentiometer is balanced when the jockey (sliding
contact) is at such a position on wire AB that there is no
current through the galvanometer. Thus

When the potentiometer in balanced, the unknown
voltage (potential difference being measured) is equal to
the voltage across AC.
Galvanometer reading = 0
AC x
V V =
Potentiometer can be used to :
i) Measure an unknown e.m.f. of a cell.
ii) Compare the e.m.f.s of two cells.
iii) Measure the internal resistance of a cell.
64
If the galvanometer shows deflection in one direction
only, it may be due to :
The connections of the terminals of the cells are wrong.
The positive terminal of the cell must be connected to
the positive terminal of another cell.
The emf of the unknown cell is more then the emf of the
cell connected across the wire of the potentiometer, AB.
The connections are not tight and the current does not
flow in certain part of the circuit.

65
i) Measure an unknown e.m.f. of a cell.
V
I
I
B
A
C
c
I
G
+ -
I
(Unknown cell)
Jockey
(Driver cell -accumulator)
When the potentiometer is
balanced,
I
G
= 0
V
AC
=

V
AC
=I R
AC
1

AC
AC
l
R
A
=
2 ,
AB
AB
l
R
A
=
3
2
, ...4
3
AC
AC AB
AB
l
R R
l
=
...5
AB
V
I
R
=
4 and 5 into 1,

AC
AC AB
AB AB
AC
AB
l V
V R
R l
l
V
l
| | | |
= c =
| |
\ . \ .
c =
Balance length = l
AC
66
ii) Compare the e.m.f.s of two cells.
V
I
I
B
A
I
G
I
(2)
(1)
2
S
C
J
D
When the potentiometer is
balanced,
I
G
= 0
Balance length,
l
AC
=l
1
for
1
and l
CD
=l
2
for
2

AC
AB
l
V
l
c = From , thus
1 2
2 1
2
2 1
1
...1 and ...2
2 1 ,

AC CD
AB AB
CD
AC
l l
V V
l l
l
l
l
l
c = c =
c = c
c = c
1
l
2
l
67
Wheatstone Bridge
B
A
G
C
D
1
R
2
R
3
R
X
R
I
2
I
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
0 =
It is used to measure the unknown resistance of the resistor.
Figure below shows the Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of a cell
of e.m.f. c (accumulator), a galvanometer , known resistances (R
1
, R
2

and R
3
) and unknown resistance R
x
.
The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows through the galvanometer. Hence

Then ,
Therefore

Since
1 CB AC
I I I = =
2 DB AD
I I I = =
and
Potential at C = Potential at D
AD AC
V V =
and
BD BC
V V =
IR V =
thus
3 2 1 1
R I R I =
X 2 2 1
R I R I = and
X 2
3 2
2 1
1 1
R I
R I
R I
R I
=
3
1
2
X
R
R
R
R
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
68
B
A
G
C
D
1
R
2
R
3
R
X
R
I
2
I
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
0 =
3
1
2
X
R
R
R
R
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
X
R
A
G
B
R
J
Thick copper
strip
(Unknown
resistance)
Jockey
(resistance box)
Accumulator
Wire of uniform
resistance
= 0
1
I
1
I
2
I
I
I
1
2
X
R l
R l
=
2
3 1
X
R R
R R
=
69
Example 18.19
An unknown length of platinum wire 0.920
mm in diameter is placed as the unknown
resistance in a Wheatstone bridge as
shown in figure below.
Resistors R
1
and R
2
have resistance of
38.0 O and 46.0 O respectively.
Balance is achieved when the switch
closed and R
3
is 3.48 O. Find the
length of the platinum wire if its
resistivity is 10.6 x 10
-8
O m.

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18.

total potential difference

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