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This is Intro to Logic designed for students of philosophy especially for CSS aspirants. For details and more presentations and notes on complete course of philosophy (Logic, Western Philosophy & Muslim Philosophy) contanct 0345-4740019.
This is Intro to Logic designed for students of philosophy especially for CSS aspirants. For details and more presentations and notes on complete course of philosophy (Logic, Western Philosophy & Muslim Philosophy) contanct 0345-4740019.
This is Intro to Logic designed for students of philosophy especially for CSS aspirants. For details and more presentations and notes on complete course of philosophy (Logic, Western Philosophy & Muslim Philosophy) contanct 0345-4740019.
CHAPTER # 1 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC Man is rational animal. He differs from animals b/c of rationality So animals only exist but men live. Man can reason(so invent & discover) Logic teach him to reason correctly. MAN VS. ANIMAL Unexamined Life is not worth livingSocrates LOGIC: DEFINITIONS FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES. Logic is a Science of Reasoning. Logic is the study of the valid principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning. Logic is an organized body of knowledge or science that evaluates arguments whose aim is to provide standards for determining the truth of validity and thought. DEFINITION OF LOGIC HISTORY OF LOGIC SUBJECT MATTER OF LOGIC REPEATED QUESTION IN CSS
What benefits are to be achieved from the study of logic? Discuss. 2000 OR why should we study Logic? Discuss its importance in everyday life. OBJECTIVES AND BENEFITS OF LOGIC LOGIC TEACHES US To reason correctly
To evaluate or test arguments of the other people
To construct our owns arguments
To develop methods and techniques to distinguish good argument from bad argument. WHY TO STUDY LOGIC? OR BENEFITS OF LOGIC IMPORTANTLY, Logic is "therapeutic": we learn logic to recognize and to construct good arguments.
Formal logic is an indispensable item in the contemporary philosopher's toolkit.
It develops thinking abilities systematically ARISTOTLES LOGIC He says Logic studies thought Thought means not process but product of thought
1. Concept (Term) 2. Judgment (Proposition) 3. Interference (argument) CONCEPT Property of mind Picture of a thing in mind A mental image E.g., table, chair, pen, book TERM Concept expressed in language
Categorematic: term by itself; man, table Syncategorematic: not term by themselves; the, an, all, only, of Acategorematic: used in neither case, hurrah!, Alas TERM Positive term Negative term private
TERMS Positive: table, chair, man Negative: not-table, not-chair Private: blind, deaf, dumb SINGULAR AND GENERAL TERMS Particular term, Socrates, Ravi, Lahore
Universal terms, man, cricket, university JUDGMENT Relationship of affirmation/negation b/w two terms Intellectual activity Comparison/ evaluation of particular effects of an experience Psychological activity of awareness of objects and relationships PROPOSITION Judgment expressed in language True or false statement Witten or spoken statement in language 3 parts: Subject Predicate copula A logical sentence. It consists of terms (subject & Predicate. Subject and predicate are two class which are related are linked through copula. Example of Proposition: Subject copula Predicate All Men are Mortal.
PROPOSITION PROPOSITION INFERENCE Combination of more than 1 propositions Mental activity Where some propositions are given (premises) , and other follow from them (conclusion).
INFERENCE A inference or reasoning is a process of transition from known/perceived facts (Premises) to unknown or unperceived reasoning.
You see smoke and infer/ reason that there is a fire. INFERENCE REASONING
All Men are Mortal. Socrates is a Man.
Therefore, Socrates is Mortal. Premises Conclusion ARGUMENT PREMISES PREMISES INDICATORS
CONCLUSION INDICATORS
TWO TYPES OF ARGUMENTS Formal Argument
Informal argument FORMAL ARGUMENT Formal Argument deals with 1. form/ structure of argument. For example: All M are P All Scientists are Researchers. All S are M All Professors are scientists. All S are P Therefore, All Professors are researchers. OR 2 + 2 = 4
2. Arrangement of terms and forms of proposition in an argument. 3. Constructed systems of logic carrying proofs. 4. Notion of form refers to norms/rules/laws of expression (So, Logic is Normative Science) 5. Our thoughts are also formal n structured. 6. Language and rules of reasoning are precisely carefully defined. Deductive reasoningsyllogisms, mathematics and computer science INFORMAL ARGUMENT Deals with content (meaning) of argument.
Study of reasoning and fallacies in the context of everyday language and life. FORMAL ARGUMENT AND INFORMAL ARGUMENT
Difference b/w Deductive reasoning ( a formal argument) and Inductive reasoning (an informal argument) DEDUCTIVE REASONING 1. In deductive argument, we move from universal (general info) to particular (specific observation). Example: All men are mortal. (universal) Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal (particular) 2. Conclusion follows necessarily from premises.
3. If premises are true, then conclusion must be true.
4. In deductive reasoning, relationship b/w premises and conclusion is of Certainty or must be. DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT 5. DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS A TOP-DOWN APPROACH Because it moves from top (universal or greater) to down (Particular or smaller).
All men are mortal. (top) Universal Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal. (down) Particular
TOP-DOWN APPROACH Every person has a head. (start here)
Conclusion: Aslam is a person. Therefore, Aslam has one head. TOP-DOWN APPROACH 6. DEDUCTION IS USED TO TEST HYPOTHESIS AND THEORIES ETC. 7. DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS THAT IN WHICH ARGUER CLAIMS THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE CONCLUSION TO BE FALSE GIVEN THAT PREMISES ARE TRUE. 8. Mathematical arguments, categorical, disjunctive and hypothetical syllogisms are examples of deductive reasoning. INDUCTIVE REASONING 1. It moves from particular observations to universal truth. Crow 1 is black Crow 2 is black Particular facts Crow 3 is black Therefore, all crows are black. (universal) INDUCTIVE REASONING 2. In this argument, conclusion is probably follows from premises.
3. If premise are true, then conclusion is unlikely or improbable" to be false.
4. The relationship b/w premises and conclusion is of probability.
6. INDUCTIVE REASONING IS USED TO MAKE HYPOTHESIS, LAWS AND THEORIES 7. INDUCTIVE REASONING IS A BOTTOM- UP APPROACH. BOTTOM-UP APPROACH Man 1 has only 1 head. Man 2 has only 1 head. Man 3 has only 1 head. Every man has 1 head. Deductive VS. Inductive reasoning 1. Premises provide conclusive grounds for conclusion.
2. Relationship b/w premises and conclusion is CERTAIN.
3. Valid or invalid 1. Premises provide some support for conclusion.
2. Relationship b/w premises and conclusion is PROBABLE.
3. Strong or weak Deductive VS. Inductive reasoning 4. Truth preserving
5. Not based on sense- experience
6. Conclusion necessarily follows from premises
7. Mathematics is based on deductive reasoning 4. Not truth preserving
5. Based on sense- experience
6. Conclusion probably follows from premises
7. Natural sciences are based on inductive reasoning SUMMARY ARGUMENTS Deductive Inductive Begins from known statement Begins from unknown statement Universal to particular Particular to universal Necessary support Probable support Valid Invalid Strong weak Can be proved on logical grounds can not be proved on logical grounds TRUTH, VALIDITY, SOUNDNESS, STRENGTH, COGENCY Truths property of statement/proposition. Validity (valid/invalid) and soundness are characteristics of deductive argument.
Strength (weak/strong argument) and cogency are characteristics of inductive argument.
TRUTH, VALIDITY, SOUNDNESS, STRENGTH, COGENCY Truth and Falsity Proposition Validity & Invalidity Soundness & unsoundness
Strength & weakness Cogency & Uncogency Deductive argument Inductive argument TRUTH Truth and falsity are the characteristics of propositions. 1. Material Truth: proposition should be according to facts. Its changeable. Truth is present in external world. 2. Formal Truth: its not conditional and depends up its own nature. Unchangeable and logical proposition. VALIDITY Validity and invalidity are characteristics of only deductive arguments Conclusion should necessarily follow from conclusion. It is formal aspect of thought. Validity depends upon truth of premises and conclusion. Argument must be invalid, if all premises are true and conclusion is false. VALIDITY SOUNDNESS Two conditions must be met.
1. Argument must be valid. 2. All its premises must be true.
Soundness= All True Premises + Valid Argument SOUND ARGUMENT If deductive argument is valid and has all premises true, then it is called sound argument. Sound Argument= Valid Argument+ All True Premises All men are mortal Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. UNSOUND ARGUMENT Invalid argument with all (or one of) its premises being false is unsound argument.
All monkeys eats mangoes. Mr. x eats mangoes Therefore, Mr. x is a monkey. STRONG ARGUMENT It is a inductive argument in which conclusion strongly follows from premises. it is improbable for conclusion to be false given that premises are true.
In weak inductive argument, conclusion probably follows from premises.
Barry Hindess, Paul Hirst (Auth.) - Mode of Production and Social Formation - An Auto-Critique of Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production (1977, Palgrave Macmillan UK)