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Grounding systems.
Control Valves
IC3.7.1 Control valve basics. IC3.7.2 Principle of operation. IC3.7.3 Constructional features of control valve. IC3.7.4 Details of valve body types. IC3.7.5 Flow characteristics. IC3.7.6 Materials IC3.7.7 Sizing of Valves IC3.7.8 Actuators IC3.7.9 Sizing of actuators. IC3.7.10 Positioners IC3.7.11 Boosters IC3.7.12 Transducers
Body Design
Sliding stem valves Globe valve Single port globe valve Double port globe valve 3-Way double port valve conventional butterfly valve lined butterfly valve high performance butterfly valve conventional ball valve V notch ball valve Eccentric plug ball valve
Ball valve
Special control valves High pressure control valves. High temperature control valves. Small flow control valve. Large flow control valve. Cryogenic service control valve.
Globe valves
FEATURES
Tight shut off capability,Leakage less than 0.05% for single port & upto 0.01% for double port valve of rated Cv.Most common,simple .
APPLICATION:
ADVANTAGES : Is fast to open or close. Throttling to control any desired degree of flow. Has positive shut off. DISADVANTAGES : These are quite heavy as compared to butterfly & ball valves. Difficult to manufacture in small sizes.
Diverting service
Figure 3
Mixing service
Stem
Packing bonnet
Each valve is given flow characteristic: i.e. for a given percentage of total plug off the seat ,flow is given percent of the full open flow. This is true only when pressure drop across valve is constant.this is known inherent flow characteristics the installed flow characteristics may differ considerably at much higher pressure drop . Selection of valve trim is based upon 1) Knowledge of service pressure & flow conditions. 2) Manufacturers inherent flow characteristics for different trim shapes. 3) How inherent flow characteristics is altered by varying flow. Maximum flow capacity depends upon seat port sizing, body design ,&plug lift & type . Shutoff & opening capability are determined by diameter of the mean seat to plug seal contact ,pressure differential & available actuator force,provided the stem design is adequate & allowance is made for seating force &packing friction
Linear & equal percentage characteristics requires a plug plug nose extending into the seat orifice and this must also be withdrawn to get full flow.In case of contoured & v-port shape aids in turning flow gradually & lifts for maximum are similar or slightly greater than for quick opening plugs ; usually ,about 45% of orifice diameter for top guided plugs.
The break point in the curve , where increasing pressure drop does not increase flow my be due to; 1) critical flow at sonic velocity after pressure drop becomes one half of upstream for gas service. 2) flashing flow chokes the body downstream of the seat joint with the vapor bubbles in liquid service . In cavitation no further reduction in pressure can be obtained at vena contracta to increase flow.
General Service
Severe Service
Type 316 SS
17-4 PH SS Type 410 SS Stellite , Colmonoy Type 440-c SS Hardened Tool Steel Tungsten Carbide Nickel Monel Inconel Hastelloy A/B Durimet Titanium
AVAILABLE LINING MATERIAL EROSIVE A TIGHT SHUT OFF A CORROSIVE SEVERELY CORROSIVE 1-2" 4-12" CORROSION RESISTANT BODY ALLLOYS CHEMICAL SERVICE 1-4" CHEMICAL SERVICE 1-4" CHEMICAL SERVICE 1-4" CHEMICAL SERVICE 1-4" CHEMICAL SERVICE 1-4" CHEMICAL SERVICE -
2-8" -
A A A 2-12" -
A A A A A
TO 4"
Above 450F - The bonnet extension requires a longer stem to keep the packing cool. Above 600 F - Clearances must be increased .The plug & seat sealing areas must be hard faced . Above 750 F - All threaded seat ring must be seal welded to prevent loosening which will cause leakage & undercutting. Above 900F - All guided bushing ,plug guides & posts must be hard faced tack welded . Above 1050 F- hard faced ,integral seat joints must be used .
Figure 6
Summary Low Temperature Ranges Trim design requirements Cold valve service (0 to -50 F) - Extension bonnet with long stem,addition of ethylene glycol in packing follower . Cold valve service(-50 to -150 F)- Extension bonnet with long stem to prevent freezing . Refrigeration service -The guide bushing may be tack welded to prevent loosening from the differential thermal contraction of bushing & bonnet. Seat ring ,of screwed design are seal welded to prevent loosening & leakage. Cryogenic service(-150 to460F) -a double extension bonnet with length 12 for 320F nitrogen service,& longer for -450 F hydrogen service. Liquefied gases service - The guide bushing may be either welded or (-259 to -450F) the operating clearances for moving parts may be increased by 50% to prevent binding from differential thermal contraction. Hollow plug extension is used .seatring are of screwed design & are seal welded to prevent loosening & leakage.
Plug design
Plug is moving component of the valve which throttles the flow by positioning itself within the seat orifice & shuts off flow by contacting the seat. Plug is moved against the dynamic fluid forces by stem force transmitted from the actuator.throttling may be done by V-port plug or contoured plug. The plugs are shaped to throttle the flow with a given characteristics such as quick opening,linear , equal percentage .
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Valve stems
The stem carries the load from the actuator to plug, so in effect it is column loaded at both ends ,it will therefor bow if overloaded . The designers choice of stem diameter is a compromise between stiffness to prevent bowing, which causes striction & results in shortened packing life ,& faster bearing Vs the effect of line pressure thrusting on the cross-sectional area of the stem,is directly related to amount of packing friction.Usually friction prevails the later consideration are counteracted by additional actuator force requirement. Some close coupled ,oil field designs have short stems which run very true & increase packing life . Cage guided , balanced trim reduces stem thrust sufficiently in the the high pressure service to give a noticeable increase in packing life, because of reduction of even minor bowing & vibration.the stem size is reduced by using such trim. Attachment to plug: stems are usually threaded & then pinned to prevent loosening .The stem may bottom in imperfect thread run out in plug to make a rigid connection & the pin is usually an upset design to anchor tightly.this design present a maintenance problem in replacing the plug . Other designs use an elastic nut to hold the plug against a shoulder on the stem . Some design are pinned with spring pins allowing repeated replacement. The stem shoulder take care of the load ,& satisfactory life may be obtained by monel pins stainless pins may break from stress corrosion .Pins are seal welded for high & low temperature application
VIEW DRAWING
Figure 11
Ball Valve
FEATURES Oldest of all valves,applied for wide range of application. APPLICATION Pressure control , flow control & shut off application . Can be used for corrosive fluids,cryogenic fluids. Used for high temp application, LPG application.
VIEW DRAWING
ADVANTAGES Low pressure drop Tight shut off. Quarter turn application. Small in size & lighter in weight.
DISADVANTAGES Cannot be used for throttling application. Avoided in quick opening application since it cause water hammer. Fluid trapped in ball may cause corrosion.
Figure 12
VIEW DRAWING
Figure 13
Figure 14
3) Liner Wrapped Around Faces The liner is wrapped around the flange faces of body in order to anchor it in place & to from a gasket.controlled compression is obtained by extension of rubber liner past the body flange face. The grooves allow displacement of rubber liner on makeup of the valve in the piping without causing distortion & disc binding.the design securely anchors the liner , only being surpassed by the bonded type. 4) Push in Liner This type of liner is made from an elastomer ring that is bonded to a metal insert. This type of construction will provide stiffness for vacuum service & will prevent extrusion by differential pressure across the disc .the liner is readily replaceable in field .
Figure 15
Push in Liner
Figure 16
Clamped liner:
Figure 18
VIEW DRAWING
Figure 19
Modern process employ working pressure above 6000 psig (414bar).Pressure upto 50000 psig are not unusual.at these high pressure the techniques & methods used to seal valve bodies are very important.Usually the valve is of two piece angle design with seat ring clamped between the two body halves .the seat ring to body seal is made with retained, metallic ,hollow Oring .As pressure builds O -ring tends to allow line pressure to enter the hollow correction of the O-ring .As pressure builds Oring tends to inflate creating a tight seal between body seat & seat ring.the exterior surface of the seat is plated with soft silver to assist in forming the seal. Stem packing material: Valve stem packing tolerances become more critical for high pressure units.At high pressure elastomer packing can be extruded through very small clearances.Packing compound is usually TFE compound impregnated with glass to make it more resistant to extrusion. Stem material: The stem of these control valves are also made of high strength material such as 4140 steel.The stem is short ,well guided & plated with chrome to prevent galling by high pressure . Valve bodies Forged diecast bodies are used as high pressure bodies . The material is usually heat treated type 4340 steel for pressure upto 50000 psig, & annealed steel SS316 for pressures upto 10,000 psig. Forging process provides bodies free of voids & can be heat treated to high strength Valve plug : The valve plug tip is made up of furnished tungsten carbide for resistance against corrosion & abrasion. Actuation done by piston & diaphragm actuators.
Applied in small pilot laboratories ,pilot plant ,commercial process plants . These employ special trims for extremely small flow rates is necessary .The special trim parts used are normally only two parts - a reduced port seat ring & a valve plug with a tapered flat milled on one side . These parts are machined to very low tolerances and are usually made of a hardened stainless steel or hard faced with alloy 6 to minimize erosion.Using a 3/16 inch diameter port .
Seat ring
Figure 21
When control valves are applied to operate at temperature below freezing point , special precaution are taken .In certain cases special designs are required .the principle problem is selection of proper materials of construction , particularly on moderately cold services (to -150 F). Cryogenics is the term applied for process operating in temperature range below (-150F). In temperature range (-20 to 150F ) special impact resistant carbon steels are used for pressure containing parts,the commonly used parts are of carbon steel (grade LCB). In temperature range (-20 to 50 F)3.5% nickel steel (grade LC3) is used . Valves are generally equipped with plain extension bonnet .In these temperature range the primary objective is to reduce influx of heat system to reasonably low value ,& to prevent packing box .The simple extension box is installed in upright position to minimize heat transfer in operating fluid . At cryogenic temperatures , material of construction now exclude carbon steel & include austentic stainless steel .bronze, monel. A special attention is paid to design bonnet.Care is taken that no liquefied gas is trapped in bonnet space , where vaporization could generate dangerously high pressures.in all cases the valve is completely insulated the process piping & valves in cold section are often installed in cold box.the valve in this case may have exceptionally long ,plain extension bonnet .
Figure 24
Figure 25
Offset vane cryogenic butterfly valve with elastomer lip seal for tight shut off
The linear characteristics provides a change in flow which is linear with valve lift & thus With signal to the valve. The linear characteristics would seem intuitively to be most desirable characteristic for control, since it provides constant valve gain throughout the stroke at constant pressure drop. However inclusion of the valve into a system ,with associated piping equipment, & control loop, leads to considerations which generally make equal % the most widely applied characteristic. The equal % characteristics produces a change in flow, with change in lift, that is a constant % of the flow before the change was made. Putting in simple terms, Assign equal % characteristics to a control valve if, 1)Process is fast 2)High rangeability is desired 3)When system dynamics are not well known. 4)Control valve is required in an application like heat exchangers where an increase in product rate requires much greater increase in heating /cooling medium. 5)The major portion of control system pressure drop is not available through the control valve. Assign Linear valve characteristic to a control valve if, 1)Process is slow 2)Where more than 40 % of the system pressure drop occurs across the valve 3)When major process changes are a result of load changes
Flow characteristics
Figure 25
Sizing basics
Sizing employs principle of conservation of energy. Daniel Bernoulli discovered that as the liquid flows through the orifice ,the square if fluid velocity is directly proportional to pressure difference across the orifice & inversely proportional to specific gravity of the fluid ,therefore greater the pressure differential pressure greater the velocity.greater the density lower the velocity.logically the liquid flow rate is calculated by multiplying the fluid velocity by area of flow .There exists energy losses due to friction & turbulence . Now the basic liquid sizing equation can be written as follows: Q = Cv (P/G) where Q = capacity of gallons per minute. Cv = valve sizing coefficient . P=pressure differential in psi. G =specific gravity of fluid. Cv is equal to number of US gallons of water flowing at 60F through the valve in one minute when the pressure difference of one pound per square inch. Cv provides both style & size ,also provides an index for comparing liquid capacities of valves under standard test of condition.
CONTROL VALVE SIZING: To be a good aircraft pilot it is necessary to have the seat of the pants feel of the ship. It is also important to know why the ship responds the way it does. For the same reasons, the art of valve sizing goes hand in hand with the science of fluid mechanics.
Incompressible fluids: (LIQUIDS) A fluid flowing through control valves follows the same laws of conservation of mass & energy as expressed in the equations of fluid mechanics. First conquered the flow of liquids, which essentially are incompressible fluids. When any fluid flowing inside a pipe, passes through a narrow passage or restriction, it must accelerate. The energy for this acceleration must be taken from the pressure of the fluid, or the static head. After passing the restriction, the fluid slows down again & part of this head is recovered. Neglecting friction & other non-ideal influences for a moment, Bernoullis theorem gives us the equation,
Where Q is flow through control valve, A2 is area at vena contracta, p1 is upstream pressure, and p2 is downstream pressure & is density at operating conditions. After further simplification it works out to be, Q = Cv (P/G) where Q is flow of liquid through pipeline, G is operating density & P is differential pressure across control valve.
We will have to consider two important factors, which affect calculations of Cv for liquids 1)Piping geometry factor (Fp): Ideally we had considered same size of piping as that of a control valve, but in practice there are always reducers/expanders upstream/downstream of control valves & you have to correct for this change from ideal condition. 2) Viscosity factor (F ): When flow is turbulent there is no problem & correction factor is not required. But the moment the viscosity becomes low & flow starts getting laminar, we will have to apply correction to the Cv using viscosity correction factor. The calculation sheet enclosed gives details of these factors & also elaborates methods of calculations for these factors & their use in calculating corrected Cv. Above we have seen the fundamentals of control valve sizing for liquids, which are non-cavitating & non-flashing. We will now turn our attention to two important phenomena, namely Cavitation & Flashing. These phenomena are of significant interest in any comprehensive discussion of control valves since their occurrence will affect the valve sizing procedures, may introduce noise & vibration & also may limit the life expectancy of the valve components & immediate downstream piping.
What is cavitation:
Cavitation is a two-stage phenomenon, the first step of which is the formation of voids or cavities within the liquid system. The second stage is the collapse or implosion of these cavities back into an all-liquid state.
What is Flashing:
Flashing is similar to cavitation, only difference being that in cavitation the pressure recovery is full but in flashing outlet pressure remains below critical pressure of the fluid. Fig.1 shows the process of cavitation & flashing graphically. In short if cavitation has to take place following criteria to be fulfilled, 1) The fluid at both inlet & outlet to be in an all liquid state 2) The liquid must be in subcooled state at the inlet. 3) The valve outlet pressure must be either at or above the vapor pressure of the liquid. If flashing has to take place, following criteria to be fulfilled, 1)The fluid at inlet must be in all liquid condition ,while some vapor must be present at the valve outlet. 2)The fluid at the inlet may be in either a saturated or a subcooled condition 3)The valve outlet pressure must be either at or below the vapor pressure of the liquid
Cavitation evidences:
1) Noise: In a control valve the evidence of cavitation is usually a hissing sound .As cavitation intensity increases due to increasing pressure differentials, the sound level also increases. 2)Vibration: more noise due to cavitation, more vibrations emanating from control valve. 3) Material damage: due to cavitation, there is serious damage to the valve internals
Cavitation control:
1)Generally control valves with high recovery of pressure drop are more prone to cavitation than low recovery valves. Hence globe valves are less prone to cavitation than butterfly/ ball valves. 2) Use hard trim to avoid material damage to the control valve trim. Stelliting of trim is a standard procedure to delay effects of cavitation. 3) Pressure balancing of trim is to be done to improve throttling stability. 4) 90 degree bends in flow path create a series of velocity head losses reducing pressure gradually. 5) Pressure drop may be divided across a series of orifices. 6) A combination of 4) & 5) above having multiple small differential pressures rather than one larger differential pressure to keep the liquid above its vapor pressure so that cavitation does not occur. 7) Flow may be jetted against flow & swirled to create a massive turbulence & internal friction to dissipate the energy as heat.
Cavitation & flashing phenomenon the control valve sizing also gets affected & the deviations from standard formula for control valve sizing for liquids is discussed below,Cavitation & Flashing both produce a decrease in ability of the valve to convert pressure drop across it into a mass flow rate. Referring to basic equation for liquid sizing, it can be observed that the flow rate is proportional to the square root of pressure drop & that the constant of this proportionality is liquid flow coefficient Cv. It has been observed that if pressure drops of above 5~10 psi are considered while carrying out the valve capacity experiment, then it is observed that above 5~10 psi range, the flow of fluid through control valve tends to decrease rather than following standard flow & square rooted P relationship. This indicates incipient cavitation of the main flow stream.
Cavitation index:
A dimensionless ratio, experimentally determined from plot of q versus squareroot of P at fixed values of inlet pressure & valve opening is used to describe the point of initial departure from a proportional relationship..This ratio is called cavitation index & is given as below, Kc= P1-P2/ P1-Pv = P/P1-Pv After cavitation has has begun, further decrease in in valve outlet pressure (increased pressure drops) results in increased vaporization, increased cavitation intensity & further decreases in the apparent liquid flow coefficient. It is observed that with sufficient pressure drop the flow becomes FULLY CHOKED., so that increasing pressure drop results in no increase in flow rate. Increasing the pressure drop after choked flow has been reached will result in increased amounts of cavitation damage until the valve outlet pressure is decreased to to the value that will permit flashing.
Q = N1FpCv (P/G f)
Q= volumetric flowrate N1=1.00 (US) =0.00865(SI) Fp= piping correction factor Cv=control valve coefficient P= differential pressure Gf =specific gravity
Wf = N6 FLP Cv (P)
N6 =63.3 (US)=2.73(SI) FLP=combined pressure & piping loss Cv=control valve coefficient P =differential pressure =specific weight
Calculation for piping correction factor (Fp) & Calculation for correction factor (FLP)
Fp = [ K/N2 (Cd)2 ] -1/2 FLP = [ 1/ (FL )2 Ki/N2 (Cd)2 ] -1/2
N2= 890 (US) =0.00214(SI) K=sum of coefficient heads =K1 +K2+KB1+KB2 K1=0.5[1-(d/D)2 ]2 K2 = 1.0[1-(d/D)2 ]2 KB1 = KB2 = 1-(d/D) Ki= K1 + KB1
Q = N1FLPCv (P-Pvc)/G f Wf=N6FLPCv (P-Pvc)/G f where : Pvc= Ff*Pv Ff =critical liquid pressure ratio factor. =0.9996-0.28 (Pv/Pc) Pv=vapor pressure of liquid. Pc=thermodynamic critical pressure. FLP =combined pressure & piping factor.
Actuators
Pneumatic/Diaphragm actuators
Piston actuators
Electric actuators
Positioners Boosters
Pneumatic Actuators
Probably 90% of the actuators in the process are pneumatic.The reason for their wide application is use of compressed air which is very good source of power for actuators .The energy stored in compressed air provides a large reservoir of readily available power to meet the needs of the actuators. The reservoir formed by the air receiver & the distribution system will supply power during short periods of power interruptions.Upto a point high pressure air is more effective than low pressure air as far as actuators are concerned . Taking economic factors into consideration ,the optimum system pressure is between 60 to 120 psig.If cylinder actuated valves are used in plants economy dictates that the pressure be at least 80 psig. The quality of compressed is a important factor to be considered for safety , reliability & maintenance cost .Suitable air quality standard should be adopted for the purpose.The air should be dried to a dew point at least 10F below the ambient temperature.The compressor should be non lubricated so there is no oil present .Liquid ring avoid both oil & particulate problems.Many plants are expected to run 100% of the time without failure ;yet many pumps in less critical service are spared. Other compressed gases may be used in place of air , for instance , natural gas is often used on outdoor installation.other gas which is used is dry nitrogen which is to be used should be oil free.Great care is to be taken to avoid the hazard if pilots are located in closed areas where air can be displaced by nitrogen.Even control rooms can be hazardous if ventilation fails.
Pneumatic Actuators
Also called diaphragm actuators.usually employ a flexible diaphragm, placed between two stampings or cast casing& at least one section is made pressure tight .the actuator generally has a range spring opposing the force generated within actuator.The control air signal is connected to pressure air tight chamber & an increase or decrease in pressure result in force which is used to overcome the pressure -drop forces within valve body, forces of actuator spring ,& hysterisis forces in valve body.the sole purpose of actuator is to move the valve in response to error correcting signal.The size of the actuator depends on the pressure drop in the valve. Types of pneumatic actuators: Direct acting - Air tight chamber is above diaphragm. Reverse acting - Air tight chamber is below chamber. Diaphragm materials: Neoprene diaphragm with fiberglass. Cotton /nylon-for ambient conditions. Silicones,viton,polyacrylics with Dacron for high temperatures. Fiber glass fabric. Application Widely used for proportional control. Advantages: Good adaptability.available in wide no.of sizes,least expensive in market. Disadvantages: Employ large diaphragm,large casting,imposes stresses on valve,not fast.
Figure 26
Piston actuators
These are available from most manufacturers.These are used along with positioners .the piston cylinder used is made of cast/wrought iron withstanding high pressure than stamped or cast casing.Due to high pressure rating the actuators are able to provide more force for smaller diameters.It is considered as effective means of coping pressure drops,when used along with actuators. Application Proportioning or positioning control valves. Advantages: Provide high thrust. Good frequency response. High reliability Exact positioning relative to control signal. Relatively fast response Safe in electrically hazardous location. Disadvantages: Requires high pressure air supply. More expensive than spring & diaphragm type. Cumbersome to achieve fail safe condition
Piston Actuator
Figure 27
Electric Actuator
Actuator operation The command signal for an electronic positioner is often 4- 20 mA DC ,but could be no of other values . It tells actuator where the actuator should be positioned . The actuator is usually designed to go fully closed at 4mA.& fully open at 20 mA signal for direct acting .When actuator is closed at 20mA & fully open at 4mA the actuator id reverse acting . The actuator signal comes from a potentiometer other resistive element .it is an electrical terminal that tells the servo where the actuator is positioned . The comparator circuit compares the signal & actuator feedback signal. 1) If the signals are different then the comparator activates either the open or close to minimize the difference . 2) For identical signal ,the comparator activates neither circuit . 3) The comparator should never activate both circuits at a time. The output circuit features some form of switching element to connect the power supply to motor leads.the switching elements are relays or TRIACs.
Supply
Input signal
open
comparator Logic ckt
close
Valve position
Figure 28
Electric Actuator
Advantages: Extremely fast response. Develops maximum power for actuation. Ensures accurate positioning of valve. Disadvantages Expensive More difficult to maintain
Figure 29
Selection of Actuators
Selection criteria : 1) Availability of powering source viz. Hydraulic, pneumatic,electric mechanical. 2) Thrust requirement for the maximum pressure operation & tightness of shutoff required to overcome friction versus the size available for each type of actuator. 3) The availability of the actuator to hold the plug in a fixed position(stiffness) through surges of line pressure .this is achieved by a high rate mechanical spring ,low case air volume,hydraulic fluid loading .the rate of force change of the actuator with stroke should be at least twice the rate of change of line pressure unbalances in within the valve acting on the plug & stem. 4) The required actuating action upon failure of powering medium ; valve fails open; valve fail close; close; hold position. 5) Adequate frequency response to satisfy process dynamic and /or safe emergency full open or closing times . 6) Temperature limits of elastomer diaphragm material. Neoprene(-20 to 180F); silicone(-30 to 300F); Viton(-10 to 350 F) metal bellows (> 350F) 7) Actuator cost escalting in this order Air diaphragm type,air piston, air rotary, electric & electrohydraulic type.
Actuator Sizing
When one selects an actuator following points should be weighed carefully Torque required . Speed of response required . duty cycle limits. Energy Costs. Adjustibility for travel ,split ranging ,or other loops needs. Price of installation cost. Maintenance cost. Reliability . Space requirement & weight.
Actuator Sizing
Static Forces The static forces are those forces that exist with the valve under pressure but with no fluid flow .An ideal actuator should be able to overcome all the forces associated with the valve .It should be able to move the valve mechanism to specified position with specified tolerance ,despite the varying forces exerted b the flowing fluid .In other words it should have power , stiffness & good frequency response qualities suitable for application. The static imbalance is a major force .On single ported ,unbalanced globe valves this force is measured by the area of the seat multiplied by the differential pressure.Even on balanced valve there is difference in the opposing areas.The double port valve has unequal seat areas .To account for these forces the areas of the seat & pistons must be known.The direction of force depends on direction of flowing fluid .Another static forces is the stem force .It is measured b the area of the stem multiplied by the pressure in the valve body. To meet the leakage tolerance the plug valve must be seated with appropriate force.This force varies from about 20 lb per lineal inch of seat circumference for class II leakage rate to about 80 lbs per lineal inch for the larger size valves Class V valves require a seating force that increases with shut off pressure differential across seat. Soft seated valves require fairly high seat loads to get tight shut off. TFE requires a forces of 30 lbs plus a force of 22lb/in for each 100 psi differential pressure drop across it.max drop of TFE is 400 psi.
Actuator Sizing
Static forces of rotary motion valves manifest themselves in a entirely different manner .First Off ,the forces are measured in torque units . Ball & other symmetric valves have no unbalanced forces .Ball valve plugs are often designed so that closure member is always in contact with the seat.These valves have extremely high seat frictional forces at all opening .The other rotary valve incur sealing forces only at small angles of opening .The torque required to cope up these forces are breakaway or breakout torque.
Actuator Sizing
Dynamic forces
Dynamic forces are those forces created by fluid by the fluid flow through the valve.For some valves these forces are very complex . In flow to close direction ,the stem force on this valve increases slightly as the plug moves off the seat , up to about 2.5 % of seat diameter.then the force decreases linearly to about 25% of its closed value.The double ported , Quick opening ,with one port flow to open & one port flow to close ,has a fluid force it fairly balanced .
Figure 31
Figure 32
For Butterfly ValveThe fluid forces acting on butterfly valves differ widely in design of the disk & orientation of the stem .Consider first aligned disk with centered stem. When the valve is closed there is no torque due to differential pressure .But the thrust caused by the differential pressure on disk creates a substantial friction on bearings. This adds to friction caused by packing & seal .As the valve opens the vane ,the actuator must oppose the torque that tend to close the valve the torque reaches the maximum value when valve is 60 to 80 open.As dynamic torque increases , thrust on the bearings is affected by lifting forces on the disk,changing torque requirement of the actuator.The torque is proportional to pressure drop & cube of diameter of disk. The other factors affecting the torque curve for this type of valve are : The quality of bearings Lubricity of fluid Fitting adjacent to valve Free discharge Choked flow Compressible fluids
It is required for an actuator is to have enough power to overcome the forces Both valve & actuator have distinctive dynamic properties .Besides the steady state forces caused by fluid turbulence.These are known as buffeting forces & constitute a disturbance to the position .If the valve is to remain steady under this condition ,the actuator must be stiff enough to to resist motion. A second factor affecting stability is negative fluid force gradient . To understand force gradients, consider first the single ported globe valve ,with a turned plug ,flow tending too open with open with the packing on downstream side.The plug force is a proportional to the effective plug area (Ap) & the effective pressure drop(P).The proportionality factor (Kh)is the fluid force coefficient .It varies with the fractional valve travel (h).The stem force is produc of the stem area(As) & P2(psig) F=Kh P Ap - P2 As & Kh = (F + P2 As)/ (P Ap )
When the valve is in motion there are certain factors that assume importance relative to valve stability .On balanced cage guided valves balancing piston is connected to the body pressure by holes through the plug leading to balancing chamber. When plug moves moves ,fluid must flow through these passages .This pressure .If the plug moves fast & holes are small ,there are will be substantial pressure drop across the passages .this pressure difference in effect changes the shape of the force curve & can create excessive negative fluid force & instability. On the other hand , rapid valve movement caused by fluid forces on actuator in a manner to increase the effective spring rate ,thus increasing stability . Movement of diaphragm or piston in the actuator causes air to flow in or out of actuator case through small opening .This is a snubber & acts as an additional spring force .If the valve time constant is ,at frequencies greater than ( ) -1 radians/sec .The effective air spring rate is Kp = k p (Ad)2 / V
Where k = ratio of specific heats (sir=1,40) p = average air pressure ,psia Ad= Area of diaphragm,sq.inches V =Volume ,cu.inches
Friction is dominant at natural frequency . Above natural frequency inertia serves to increase the stiffness still further .At these frequencies less then natural frequencies the air spring effect diminishes rapidly unless the valve is equipped with positioner.Because of its high gain the positioner enables an actuator to resist fluid forces that act at lower frequencies. As the frequencies approaches ( ) -1 radians/sec stiffening effect diminishes to that of a valve without positioner. For choked flow there may be little or no pressure recovery.In that case the P used in equation Kh = (F + P2 As)/ (P Ap ) Is to be replaced by P e P e= FL(P1-FFPV) For gas or vapor the effective pressure drop P is P e=Yx P1 And for choked flow P e=0.44 Fk XT P1 In order to cope up with the problem caused by negative fluid gradient , the valve manufacturer adopts certain design procedures to overcome the lack of complete information. One method is to list for each valve style & stem travel a factor to define the slope of the negative gradient the factor is called Kn Kn = (dF / dH)/(psi) -inches The spring rate must be greater than (P Kn). The operating pressure is taken as P .
Positioner
It is a device which precisely positions ,by use of air ,the moving part or parts of a pneumatically operated valve in accordance with a pneumatic signal. Principle of operation A typical controller output varies from a minimum 0 psig to maximum 20 psig. The most common valve spring operates at 3-15 psig.the air pressure above 15 psig is used to close valve against upstream pressure . The figure below shows a valve with a positioner in addition to controller. The signal from controller in this case goes to positioner instead of directly to control valve. The positioner compares signal with the stem position .if the position is not proper the positioner adds or exhausts air from the valve actuator until desired position is obtained. Application: To overcome friction. To increase shut-off rating of single seated valves. To increase speed of response of control valve. Split range operation. To change flow characteristics. To get wide proportional band. Limitation: Hampers quality in fast process.so,boosters are used in modern day application
Boosters
Volume boosters: A volume booster can be used to increase the speed of operation of diaphragm control valve .A volume booster being used in conjunction with controller & pneumatic valve.the controller applies its output signal to booster instead of to the control valve .Only about 1 cubic inch of air is required to position the pilot in the booster , thus the volume of air moved through the connecting tubing is small .The air that operates the valve comes through the pilot in booster .The pilot has large capacity the stroking time is substantially reduced .
exhaust
20 psig
booster
controller
35 psig
Boosters
Pressure boosters : They are also volume boosters ,however their main function is to increase the pressure from controller to above 20 psig. In certain valve application. A booster may be preferred over positioner because of its lower cost. Also a booster does not close the loop around the valve. It also enhances stability in fast response systems.
exhaust
20 psig
2:1
A-T-O 6 - 30 psig 35 psig
controller
Transducers
On -off relay s: Applicable where the maximum output of controller is insufficient to operate a diaphragm valve.
exhaust
20 psig ON_OFF
controller
Throttling
Figure 35
The figure shows on-off pneumatic relay .the relay applies 35 or 0 psig to diaphragm valve to open or close valve. The 35 psig allows the single seated valve to close against high pressure line than would be possible with 20psig output from controller. The pneumatic relay is used a throttling controller where the relay is used in emergency service,as shown above.in this application the relay is normally positioned such that the exhaust port is closed & path through the relay & diaphragm valve is kept open. In emergency signal is applied to relay to close controller signal & open exhaust .
Transducers
Solenoid valves On-Off control Used in combination with diaphragm valve. It is used to supply or exhaust air from diaphragm control valve to achieve on-off control.Depending on size the arrangement may be considered less expensive & faster response. Throttling control The solenoid valve is used with throttling control valve in emergency service . The solenoid valve is positioned such that exhaust port is closed & path between controller & diaphragm is open .In emergency the solenoid coil is activated & controlled is blocked & exhaust port is opened & valve is closed .
exhaust exhaust SOV
20 psig
35 psig
35 psig
Throttling
A-T-C 6 - 30 psig Figure 37 Throttling service