Digital Control 1

Digital Control Systems
CCS-532
Lecture - 10
Ref: Chapter 13: Nise, N. S.
Control System Engineering
Chapter 13: Dorf, R. C. & Bishop, R. H. ,
Modern Control Systems
Chapter 2, 11: Benjamin C. Kuo. ,
Automatic Control Systems

Dr Pavan Chakraborty
IIIT-Allahabad
Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad
Digital Control Systems
Digital/Discrete Control
More useful for computer systems
Time is discrete
denoted k instead of t
Main tool is z-transform

f(k) F(z) , where z is complex
Analogous to Laplace transform for s-domain
Root-locus analysis has similar flavour
Insights are slightly different
= =
0
) ( ) ( )] ( [
k
k
z k f z F k f Z
Figure 13.1
Conversion of
antenna azimuth
position control
system from:
a. analog control to
b. digital control
1. Reduced Cost,

2. Flexibility in response to design changes

3. Noise immunity
Figure 13.2
a. Placement of the digital computer within the loop;
b. Detailed block diagram showing placement of A/D and D/A
converters
Figure 13.3 Digital-to-analog conver ter (DAC)
ADC 2 step process and is not instantaneous.
1. Converted to a sampled signal.
2. Converted to a sequence of binary numbers
DAC & ADC
c. conversion of
samples to
digital
numbers
Figure 13.4
Steps in ADC

a. analog signal;
Sampling Rate must be at least
twice the bandwidth of the signal,
or else there will be distortion.

This minimum sampling frequency is
called the Nyquistsampling rate.
b. analog signal after
sample-and-hold;
Figure 13.5 Two views of uniform-rate sampling:

a. Switch opening and closing;
( ) ( ) ( )
=
= =
k
W T
T kT t u kT t u t f t s t f t f
W
) ( ) ( ) (
*
b. Product of time waveform
and sampling waveform
( ) ( ) ( )
=
= =
k
W T
W
) ( ) ( ) (
*
interval. sampling during constant ~ << ) (t f T T
W
( ) ( ) ( ) ] ) ( ) ( [ ) (
*
=
= =
k
W T
W
Since the Eq. (above) is a product of 2 time fn., taking the LAPLACE
TRANSFORM in order to find a TRANSFER FUNCTION is not simple.
Simplification
) ( ) ( kT f t f =
Small T
W
( ) ( )
kTs
k
s T
k
s T kTs kTs
T
e
s
e
kT f
s
e
s
e
kT f s F
w w
W
=

(

=
(
=
1
) (
*
( ) ( )
kTs
k
s T
k
s T kTs kTs
T
e
s
e
kT f
s
e
s
e
kT f s F
w w
W
=

(

=
(
=
1
) (
*
( )
( )
kTs
k
w
w
T
e
s
s T
s T
kT f s F
W
=

(
(
(
(
(
)
`
+
=

......
! 2
1 1
) (
2
*
expantion, series with Replacing
s T
w
e
Small T
W
( ) ( )
kTs
w
k
kTs
k
w
T
e T kT f e
s
s T
kT f s F
W
=
=
(
=

) (
*
| | ( ) ( ) kT t kT f T s f s F
k
w T T
W W
= =

o ) ( ) (
* * 1
L
Inverse Laplace

| | ( ) ( ) ( ) t f T kT t kT f T s f s F
w
k
w T T
W W
* * * 1
) ( ) ( = = =

o L
Fig13.6 b. Product of
time waveform
and
sampling waveform

Figure 13.6
Model of sampling with a uniform
rectangular pulse train
Figure 13.7 Ideal sampling and the zero-
order hold
( )
( )
s
e
s G
Ts
h
=
1
Basic Concepts
Consider a sequence of values: {x
k
: k = 0,1,2,... }
These may be samples of a function x(t), sampled at
instants t =kT; thus x
k
=x(kT).
The Z transform is simply a polynomial in z having the x
k

as coefficients:
( ) { } ( )
= =
0
) (
k
k
z k f k f Z z F
Z Transform
Uses of Z-transform in
this course
Analysis of Discrete & Sampled-data
Systems
Transfer Function & Block Diagram
Representations
Exploit the z-plane
Dynamic Analysis
Root Locus Design
Fundamental Functions
Define the impulse function: {o
k
} = {1, 0, 0, 0,....}
{ } 1 ) ( = = A
k
Z z o
Define the unit step function: {u
k
} = {1, 1, 1, 1,....}
( ) { }
1 1
1
1
0

=
= = =

z
z
z
z u Z z U
k
k
k
(Convergent for |z| < 1)
Z-transform of
Consider:
constant = and , a k a u
k
k
, 2 , 1 , 0 = =
{ } ( )
a z
z
a z az
az
az z a u Z
k
k
k
k k
k
=
> <
=
= =

for 1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
Recall:Geometric Series

1
1
1
0
<
=
x
x
x
k
k
for
k
a
Z-transform of
Consider:
constant = and , a k ka u
k
k
, 2 , 1 , 0 = =
{ }
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 } {
} { } { } {
a z
az
az
az
z az a
az
da
d
a a Z
da
d
a
a
da
d
aZ ka aZ ka Z u Z
k
k k k
k
=
=
= =
= = =

MATLAB: See ztrans and iztrans commands.
We will use these two functions as generating functions.
k
k
ka u =
Generating common functions
using
a=1 yields the unit step function

a=exp(+/-bT) yields the exponential
function

k
a
1 z
z
bT
e z
z

Generating the Z-transform of
common functions
yields sinusoids
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
)} sin( { )} cos( {
cos 2
sin cos
2 2
2 2
*
*
*
*
kT r jZ kT r Z
r z T r z
T jr T r z z
r re re z
re z z
re z
re z
re z
z
T j T j
T j
T j
T j
T j
e e
e
e e
e e
e
e
e
e
+
+
+
+

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
Note: To ensure
unambiguous poles on
z-plane
wT<pi or
2pi/T=ws > 2w
the sampling theorem

T j
e r a
e
=
Generating common functions
using
a=1 yields the unit ramp function

{ } { }
( )
2
1
= =
z
Tz
k TZ kT Z
k
k
ka u =
See (Appendix G of Dorf and Bishop) for the Properties of z-Transforms
( )
2
} {
bT
bT
bkT
e z
Tze
kTe Z

=
bT
e a

=
Z-Transform: Forward Shift or
1-stage advance
0
0 0
1
1 0
) 1 (
1
0
1 ) 1 (
1
0
1 1
) (
} {
zu z zU
zu zu z u z
z u z z u z
z z u z u u Z
m
m
m
m
m
m
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k k
=
+ =
= =
= =
=
+
+
=
+
+
+ +

Z-Transform: Forward Shift or
2-stage advance
{ }
0
2
1
2
1 0
1 1 2
) (
) (
} { } {
u z zu z U z
zu zu z zU z
zu u zZ u Z
k k
=
=
=
+ +

In general:

+
=
1
0
) ( } {
n
m
m
m
n n
n k
z u z z U z u Z
Delay/Shift Property
Let y(t) = x(t-T) (delayed by T and truncated at t = T)

y
k
= y(kT) = x(kT-T) = x((k-1)T) = x
k-1
; y
0
= 0

{ }

=
= = =
1
1
1
) (
k
k
k
k
k
k k
z x z y y Z z Y
Let j = k-1 ; k = j + 1

( )
) ( ) (
1
0
1
0
1
z X z z x z z x z Y
j
j
j
j
j
j

=
+
= = =

The values in the sequence, the coefficients of the polynomial, slide
one position to the right, shifting in a zero.

Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad
Some Important Teorems of
the z-Transform
No Poles
Table 13.2 z-transform theorems
The Laplace Connection
Consider the Laplace Transforms of x(t) and y(t):
( ) ( ) { } ( ) { } ( ) s X e T t x L t y L s Y
Ts
= = =
Equate the transform domain delay operators:
Ts
e z

=
1
Ts
e z =
Examine s-plane to z-plane mapping . . .
z e
Ts
=
S-Plane to Z-Plane Mapping
Anything in the Alias/Overlay region in the S-Plane will be overlaid on the Z-
Plane along with the contents of the strip between s= jt/T. In order to
avoid aliasing, there must be nothing in this region, i.e. there must be no
signals present with radian frequencies higher than e =2t f = t/T, or cyclic
frequencies higher than f = 1/2T. Stated another way, the sampling
frequency must be at least twice the highest frequency present (Nyquist
rate).
Figure 13.13
Mapping regions of the s-plane
onto the z-plane
Mapping Poles and Zeros
A point in the Z-plane r e
ju

will map to a point in the
S-plane according to:

{ }
( )
T
r
s
ln
Re =
{ }
T
s
u
= Im
Conjugate roots will generate a real valued polynomial
in s of the form:
2 2
2
n n
s s e ,e + +
( )
2
ln
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
u
u
e
r
T
n
( )
T
r
n
e
,
ln
=
Example 1: Running Average Algorithm
Transfer Function
( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 3 3 2 1
4
1
4
1
z
z z z
z X
z z z
z X z Y
+ + +
=
+ + +
=

( )
4
2 3
4
1
z
z z z
z
X
Y + + +
=
4
3 2 1
+ + +
=
k k k k
k
x x x x
y
Note: Each [Z
-1
] block can be thought of as a
memory cell, storing the previously applied value.
(Non-Recursive)
Z Transform
Block Diagram
Example 2: Trapezoidal Integrator
| |
2
1 1
T
x x y y
k k k k
+ + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1 1
T
z X z z X z Y z z Y

+ + =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1
2 1
1
1
1
T
z
z
z X
T
z
z
z X z Y
(
+
=
(
+
=

(Recursive)
Z Transform
( )
( )
(
+
=
1
1
2 z
z T
z X
z Y
Block Diagram Transfer Function
Ex. 2 (cont) Block Diagram Manipulation
Intuitive
Structure
Equivalent
Structure
Explicit representation of
x
k-1
and y
k-1
has been
lost, but memory element
usage has been reduced
from two to one.
Ex. 2 (cont) More Block Diagram Manipulation
( )
( )
(
+
=
1
1
2 z
z T
z X
z Y
Note that the final form is equivalent to a rectangular
integrator with an additive forward path. In a PI
compensator, this path can be absorbed by the
proportional term, so there is no advantage to be
gained by implementing a trapezoidal integrator.
Table 13.1 Partial table of z- and s-transforms
Inverse z-Transform
Y(z) is y(kT); not y(t)
1. Partial-fraction expansion.

2. Power-series / Synthetic Division method.

3. The inverse formula
Common approaches for
taking the inverse z-transform
Partial Fraction Expansion: decompose U(z) into
a linear combination of easily inverted z-
transforms.

Power-series method / Synthetic Division:
divide polynomials to obtain a power series in z
-1
.

MATLABs residue command computes the
partial fraction expansion.
1.Partial-fraction expansion.
If Y(z) has at least one zero at z=0, the paritial-
fraction expansion of Y(z)/z should be performed.
Partial fraction expansion method
( )
. 1
) (
) (
) (
1
>
+
= =

=
r r
r
m
j
j
r
rj
i
i
i
m z
a(z) r
a(z) i
C
z z
z B
z z
z A
z a
z b
z U
r
ty multiplici has root
of roots repeated all includes
of roots distinct all includes
where
The coefficients (residues) {A}, {B} and C can be
calculated by hand for low-order systems or by expanding
U(z)/z in a partial fraction expansion using residue and
multiplying by z in high-order systems.
Power-series method / Synthetic
division method
Represent U(z) as a power series in z
-1
:

Since,

+ + + =
2
2
1
1 0
) ( z u z u u z U
{ }

=
= =

otherwise
for
0
1
] [
1
m k
m k z Z
m
o
+ + + = ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] [
2 1 0
k u k u k u u
k
o o o
N.B.: Synthetic division method is useful for
a limited number of values in a sequence or
as a quick check on other methods
2. Power-series method.
2-171
3. The inverse formula
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

z
-
T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m

t
o

t
h
e

S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f

L
i
n
e
a
r

D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

E
q
u
a
t
i
o
n

The Transfer Function
Definition: The transfer function of a system is the ratio of the
transform of the output of the system to to that of its input with zero
initial conditions.
n
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
a z a z
b z b z b
z a z a
z b z b b
z E
z U
z E z b z E z b z E b
z U z a z U z a z U
+ + +
+ + +
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
+ + + =
+ + +

1
1
2
1 0
1
1
1
1 0
1
1 0
1
1
1 ) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (

Using z
-1
as the delay operator,
n k n k k n k n k k
e b e b e b u a u a u

+ + + = + + +
1 1 0 1 1
Relation between transfer
function and pulse response
Consider H(z)=U(z)/E(z) with E(z) =1
that is e[k]=1 for k=0 and zero elsewhere.
Then, U(z) = H(z)

The z-transform of the unit-pulse response of a discrete system
is its transfer function.
General input-output relation
for linear, stationary discrete systems
U(z) = H(z) E(z)
H(z) is a rational function (ratio of two polynomials) of
the complex variable z.

For H(z) = a(z)/b(z):
Values of z for which a(z) = 0 are called zeros of H(z).
Values of z for which b(z) = 0 are called poles of H(z).
If z
0
is a pole of H(z) and (z-z0)
p
.H(z) has neither a
pole or zero at z
0
, H(z) is said to have a pole of order p
at z0.
Figure 13.8
Sampled-data
systems:
a. Continuous;
b. Sampled
input;
c. sampled input
and output
Pulse
Transfer
Function
( ) ( ) ( ) nT t nT r t r
n
=
=
o
0
*
( ) ( ) ( ) nT t g nT r t c
n
=
=0
( ) ( )
k
k
z kT c z C

=
=
0
( ) ( ) ( ) nT t nT r t r
n
=
=
o
0
*
( ) ( ) ( ) nT t g nT r t c
n
=
=0
( ) ( )
k
k
z kT c z C

=
=
0
( ) ( ) ( ) nT kT g nT r kT c
n
=
=0
( ) ( ) ( )
k
k n
z T n k g nT r z C

=
=
0 0
) (
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ) ( ) (
0 0
0 0
z R z G z nT r z mT g
z mT g nT r z C
n
m m
m
n m
n m n
=
)
`

)
`
=
=
= +
=

Letting m=k-n we find
Figure 13.9 Sampled-data systems and their
z-transforms
Block Diagram Reduction
Figure 13.10
Steps in block
diagram reduction
of a sampled-data
system
Figure 13.11 Digital system for Skill-Assessment Exercise 13.4
Problem: Find T(z)=C(z)/R(z) Digital system for Skill-
Assessment Exercise 13.4
Block diagram descriptions of
discrete systems
Transfer function representations of discrete systems permit
the use of block diagrams to describe discrete systems in a
manner analogous to continuous system representation.

Add transfer functions in parallel.

Multiply transfer functions in series (cascade).

A simple feedback loop reduces to the forward path
transfer function divided by one minus the open-loop
transfer function.

Block diagram manipulation and Masons rule apply
without change.
The discrete convolution sum
Consider a linear, stationary discrete system.

If its response to a unit pulse is h[k], then its response to a
pulse of amplitude e0 is e0*h[k] since the system is linear.

Since the system is stationary a delay of the input will cause
an equal delay in the response.

The effect of a sequence of pulses is the sum of their
individual effect. For an infinite sequence:
k. sample at output the on i sample at
pulse input an of effect the is where
i k
i
i k i k
h
h e u
=

=
N.B. k >i for a
causal system
State space descriptions
of discrete systems
Any linear, stationary discrete system can be represented in
the following format:
dimension. e appropriat of matrices are J and H , ,
and vector, state the is x
vectors output and input the are and where
I u
+ =
I + u = +
y u
k u J k x H k y
k u k x k x
] [ ] [ ] [
] [ ] [ ] 1 [
N.B. The matrices A,B,C, and D are often
used to describe the state space
representation of a system.
Example of a state space
representation
e[k] [k] x ] [k x
[k] x ] [k x
] [k x e[k] [k] x ] [k x
e[k] [k] ]-x [k x
) - (z
(z)/E(z) X
+ = +
= +
+ = + = +
= + =
1 2
2 1
2 1 1
1 1
2
1
1
1
1 2
2
1
1
or
Consider G(z)=U(z)/E(z)=K(z+1)/(z
2
-1)
Let:

Then,

[k] x K [k] x K
[k] x K ] [k x K u[k]
) K(z (z) U(z)/X
* *
* *
2 1
1 1
1
1
1
+ =
+ + =
+ = or
Example of a state space
representation (cont.)
| | ] [ 0 ] [ ] [
] [
1
0
] [
0 1
1 0
] 1 [
2
1
2
1
2
1
k e k
x
x
K K k u
k e k
x
x
k
x
x
+
(
=
(
+
(
= +
(

Figure 13.12
Computer-controlled torches cut thick
sheets of metal used in construction
BlairSteitz/Photo Researchers.
Correspondence with
Continuous Signals
Consider the discrete signal to be generated
by sampling a continuous signal, We can
then exploit our knowledge of the s-plane
features by transferring them to the z-plane.
Mapping from the s-plane
to the z-plane
Consider an arbitrary point on the s-plane;

e o j s + =
Which maps onto the z-plane as:
( ) T j T T j
e e e z
e o e o
= =
+
We will consider several lines on the s-plane and their
map onto the z-plane. Recall T < t prevents ambiguity,
I.e., permits a one-to-one mapping between the two planes.
Figure 13.13
Mapping regions of the s-plane
onto the z-plane
S-plane real axis
s z e
T
= = o
o
For Re{s}>0 : Re{z}>1

For Re{s}<0 : 0<Re{z}<1

For s=0: z=1
Real axis of s-plane maps to positive-real axis of z-plane
S-plane imaginary axis &
arbitrary point in primary strip
For s=j : z=exp{j T}
A line of unit length making an angle of wT radians with
the real axis.
For s =j

s
/2=j/T : z =e xp{j}= -1
For s=a+j : z =exp{aT+j T}=exp{aT}*exp{j T}
A line of length, exp{aT}, making an angle of T radians
with the real axis.
Note that - < T< for there to be a one-to-one
map between the s-plane and the z-plane, I.e., -/T< </T
or -
s
/2< < s/2. (Sampling Theorem) The region on the
s-plane for
s
/2< <
s
/2 is called the primary strip.
S-plane line of constant damping
s j
z e e e
n n
s T
T
j T
=
= =

e e
e
e
1
2
1
u e e
u
u
u
= =

1
1
2
2
1
n n
j
T
T
z e e
Consider:
Let:
Then,
Logarithmic spirals on the z-
plane for constant damping
ratio.
S-plane line of constant natural
frequency
s j
z e e e
n n
s T
T
j T
=
= =

e e
e
e
1
2
1
( ) ( )
z e e for
T
T j T
n
=
s s < <

e

e

t e t
1
0 1 and
Again consider:
Contours of constant damping ratio and natural
frequency on the z-plane are drawn by the
MATLAB command zgrid.
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
S-PLANE USING "SGRID" - lines of constant damping ratio & natural frequency
LINES OF CONSTANT DAMPING RATIO
0.1
0.9
LINES OF CONSTANT
NATURAL FREQUENCY
10
5
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Z-PLANE USING "ZGRID" - lines of constant damping ratio & natural frequency
LINES OF
CONSTANT
NATURAL FREQUENCY
LINES OF CONSTANT
DAMPING RATIO
PI/10T
9PI/10T
0.1
0.3
Upper plane is divided into 10 segments
so wn*T=pi/10 or
wn=pi/10T per segment.
Figure 13.14
Finding stability of
a missile control
system:
a. missile;
b. conceptual block
diagram;
c. block diagram;
d. block diagram
with equivalent single
sampler
Figure 13.15
Digital system for
Example 13.7
Internal & external stability
Internal stability is concerned with the responses of all
the internal (state) variables of a system.

External stability is concerned with the response of the
output variables of a system such as described by the
transfer function or impulse response model.

They differ in that some of the internal modes of the
system may not be connected to the input and output of
a given system.
Bounded-Input Bounded-Output
(BIBO) stability
For external stability a common definition of an
appropriate response is that for every bounded input the
output should also be bounded.

A necessary and sufficient condition for BIBO stability is

<
=

i
i k
h
Note: A rational transfer function can be expanded in a partial
fraction expansion so its pulse response will be the sum of its
terms. Thus, if all poles are inside the unit circle, the system is
stable. If at least one pole is on or outside the unit circle the system
is not BIBO stable.
Proof:

<
s s s
< s

.
.
i - k
k
i
h if bounded is output the Thus,
u Then,
all for e Let
i k i k i i k i
h M h e h e
i M
1) Sufficiency
2) Necessity
BIBO not is system the true is condition the unless Thus,
u
: is at output The input. this Apply
h for
h for
e : input bounded the Consider
0
i -
i -
i

=

= = =
=
=
=
=
i
i
i
i
i
i
i i
i
i
h
h
h
h e
k
h
h
2
0
0 0
0
MATLAB commands defining
discrete systems as objects
tf
SYS = tf(NUM,DEN,TS) creates a discrete-time transfer function with
sample time TS (set TS=-1 if the sample time is undetermined).
zpk
SYS = zpk(Z,P,K,Ts) creates a discrete-time ZPK model with sample
time Ts (set Ts=-1 if the sample time is undetermined).
ss
SYS = ss(A,B,C,D,Ts) creates a discrete-time SS model with sample
time Ts (set Ts=-1 if the sample time is undetermined).
Table 13.3
Routh table for Example 13.8
Figure 13.16
Digital system for
Skill-Assessment
Exercise 13.5
Figure 13.18
Constant
damping ratio,
normalized
settling time,
and normalized
peak time plots
on the z-plane
Figure 13.19
The s-plane
sketch
of constant
percent
overshoot line
Figure 13.20
Generic digital
feedback control
system
Figure 13.21
Digital feedback
control for
Example 13.10
Root Locus analysis of Discrete
Systems
Stability boundary: |z|=1 (Unit circle)
Settling time = distance from Origin
Speed = location relative to Im axis
Right half = slower
Left half = faster
Effect of discrete poles
|z|=1
Longer settling time
Re(s)
Im(s)
Unstable
Stable
Higher-frequency
response
Ts
e z = : Intuition
Figure 13.22
Root locus
for the system
of Figure
13.21
Figure 13.23
Root locus for
the system of
Figure 13.21
with constant
0.7 damping ratio
curve
Figure 13.24
Sampled step
response of the
system of
Figure 13.21 with
K = 0.0627
Figure 13.25
a. Digital control
system showing
the digital computer
performing
compensation;
b. continuous
system
used for design;
c. transformed
digital
system
Figure 13.26
Closed-loop
response
for the
compensated
system of Example
13.12 showing
effect
of three different
sampling
frequencies
Figure 13.27
Block diagram
showing computer
emulation of a digital
compensator
Figure 13.28 Flowchart for a second-order
digital compensator
Figure 13.29 Flowchart to implement
Figure 13.30 Antenna control system:
a. analog implementation;
b. digital implementation
Figure 13.31
Analog antenna azimuth position
control system converted to a
digital system
Figure 13.32
Root locus
superimposed
over constant
damping ratio
curve
Figure 13.33
Sampled step
response of the
antenna azimuth
position control
system
Figure 13.34
Simplified block
diagram of antenna
azimuth control
system
Figure 13.35
Closed-loop digital
step response for
antenna control
system with a lead
compensator.
Figure 13.36
Flowchart for digital
lead compensator
Figure P13-1 (p. 839)
Figure
P13.2
Figure P13-3 (p. 840)
Figure P13-4 (p. 840)
Figure P13.5

Figure
P13.6
Figure P13.7
Figure
P13.8
Figure P13.9
Simplified block
diagram for robot
swing motion
Figure P13.10
Simplified block
diagram of a floppy
disk drive
z-Transforms of Common
Functions
Name f(t) F(z)
Impulse
Step
Ramp
Exponential
Sine
1
1 z
z
2
) 1 ( z
z
a
e z
z
1 ) (Cos 2
Sin
2
+ z a z
a z
1 ) ( = t f
t t f = ) (
at
e t f = ) (
) sin( ) ( t t f e =
F(s)
1
s
1
2
1
s
a s
1
2 2
1
s + e
>
=
=
0 0
0 1
) (
t
t
t f
System ID for Admission Control
M(z)
G(z) N(z) S(z)
Controller
Notes
Server
Sensor
R(z)
+
E(z)
U(z)
-
Q(z)
E
ARMA Models
Control Law
Transfer Functions
o
z z
z K
c z
d z d
a z
z b
z G z S z N
i
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 0
1
0

+
=
Open-Loop:
o
z z
z K
z G
c z
d z d
z S
a z
z b
z N
i
1
1
) (
) (
) (
1
1 0
1
0
+
=
=
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0 1
0 1
t e K t u t u
t q d t q d t m c t m
t u b t q a t q
i
+ =
+ + =
+ =
Root Locus Analysis of
Admission Control
Predictions:
K
i
small => No controller-induced oscillations
K
i
large => Some oscillations
K
i
v. large => unstable system (d=2)
Usable range of K
i
for d=2 is small
Experimental Results
Control
(MaxUsers)
Response
(queue length)
Good
Slow
Bad
Useless
Advanced Control Topics
Robust Control
Can the system tolerate noise?
Adaptive Control
Controller changes over time (adapts)
MIMO Control
Multiple inputs and/or outputs
Stochastic Control
Controller minimizes variance
Optimal Control
Controller minimizes a cost function of error and control energy
Nonlinear systems
Neuro-fuzzy control
Challenging to derive analytic results
Issues for Computer Science
Most systems are non-linear
But linear approximations may do
eg, fluid approximations
First-principles modeling is difficult
Use empirical techniques
Control objectives are different
Optimization rather than regulation
Multiple Controls
State-space techniques
Advanced non-linear techniques (eg, NNs)
Selected Bibliography
Control Theory Basics
G. Franklin, J. Powell and A. Emami-Naeini. Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 3
rd
ed.
Addison-Wesley, 1994.
K. Ogata. Modern Control Engineering, 3
rd
ed. Prentice-Hall, 1997.
K. Ogata. Discrete-Time Control Systems, 2
nd
ed. Prentice-Hall, 1995.
Applications in Computer Science
C. Hollot et al. Control-Theoretic Analysis of RED. IEEE Infocom 2001 (to appear).
C. Lu, et al. A Feedback Control Approach for Guaranteeing Relative Delays in Web
Servers. IEEE Real-Time Technology and Applications Symposium, June 2001.
S. Parekh et al. Using Control Theory to Achieve Service-level Objectives in Performance
Management. Intl Symposium on Integrated Network Management, May 2001
Y. Lu et al. Differentiated Caching Services: A Control-Theoretic Approach. Intl Conf on
Distributed Computing Systems, Apr 2001
S. Mascolo. Classical Control Theory for Congestion Avoidance in High-speed Internet.
Proc. 38
th
Conference on Decision & Control, Dec 1999
S. Keshav. A Control-Theoretic Approach to Flow Control. Proc. ACM SIGCOMM, Sep
1991
D. Chiu and R. Jain. Analysis of the Increase and Decrease Algorithms for Congestion
Avoidance in Computer Networks. Computer Networks and ISDN Systems, 17(1), Jun 1989
Effect of additional zero or pole
on discrete step response
The major effect of an additional zero to the step
response of a discrete system is to substantially change
the percent overshoot. See FP&W Figures 4.29 through
4.31.
The major effect of an additional pole is to increase the
rise time. See Figure 4.32.
These effects are conveniently demonstrated using
MATLABs ltiview GUI. Consider the system:
theta=18*pi/180; zeta=0.5; %Figure 4.29
r=exp(-zeta*theta/sqrt(1-zeta^2))
sys=tf(1,[1 -2*r*cos(theta) r^2],1);
sys=sys/dcgain(sys),ltiview
Discrete frequency response
Let: G(z)=Y(z)/U(z) with U(z) a sinusoid.

Then, U(z)=z/(z-exp{jwT)) and
Y(z)=G(z)z/(z-exp(jwT))=N(z)z/D(z)(z-exp(jwT))
Y(z) = G(exp(jwT))*z/(z-exp(jwT)+Transient response

For a stable system, the transient response will die out with
increasing time and the steady-state output will be:

y_steady-state(kT) = G(z=exp(jwT))*exp(jkwT)
= |G(exp(jwT))|*exp(jwT+arg(G(exp(jwT)))

G(exp(jwT)) with -pi<wT<=pi
is the discrete systems frequency response.
G(exp(jwT)) for 0=<wT=<pi is computed or measured and
G(exp(-jwT)) =conj(G(exp(jwT))).

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Digital Control Systems

Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad

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