Academic and Scientific Writing: Some Basic Principles

Elias Sukardi

Academic writing versus scientific writing?

What makes a good piece of writing

It answer the question set. It demonstrates understanding and clarity of thought. It provides evidence of reading and research. It supports any assertions by evidence. It is well structured. It is written in an appropriate style. It flows logically from one section to another, and from one paragraph to another. It is appropriately referenced. It is interesting to read.
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The maxim for scientific writing

Write clearly to clarify your own thinking

(Writing for clarity)

 Words

Sentences Paragraphs to produce a clear and coherent story

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Scientific English
Avoiding superfluous words and phrases
Choosing a better word Identifying imprecise words and phrases Using the active and passive voices appropriately Using the tenses properly Applying the punctuation correctly. Writing paragraphs Understanding & compiling references
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Word choice
Renal blood flow was drastically compromised when the aorta was obstructed. (greatly reduced/decreased) The salicylates are rapidly absorbed with a peak plasma concentration within 2 hours. (reaching/attaining) Fentanyl was administered intravenously (given)
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Sentence Structure

Express the core of the message in the subject, verb, and completer. Avoid noun clusters Write short sentences Appropriate use of the tenses. Use clear pronoun Put parallel ideas in parallel form
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Express the core of the message in the subject, verb, and completer
The patient showed no change in symptoms. The patient's symptoms did not change. The patient's symptoms were unchanged. The patient was begun on 0.6 g of aspirin daily and had resolution of the arthritis After the patient began taking 0.6 g aspirin daily, his arthritis resolved. Aspirin 0.6 g daily resolved the patient's arthritis.
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 A progressive decrease in the death rate occurred. The death rate decreased progressively. The death rate progressively decreased.

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 Prolongation of life for uremic patients has been made possible by improved conservative treatment and hemodialysis. The lives of uremic patients have been prolonged by improved conservative treatment and hemodialysis. Improved conservative treatment and hemodialysis have prolonged the lives of uremic patients.

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Avoid noun clusters

One

noun is commonly used to modify another noun in English, e.g. "blood flow", "protein metabolism", "lung function", "kidney disease", "oxygen therapy" "blood volume", etc.

Filament

length variability Variability of the length of the filaments Variability of filament length
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Write short sentences

Short sentences are easier to understand than long sentences. Do not pack too many ideas into one sentence. Avoid overloaded sentences!
Use the active and passive voices appropriately!

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Using the tenses appropriately

The structure of research paper
Introduction usually in the past tense Materials and methods Results usually in the past tense Discussion References Figures legends in the present tense

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 Smith

reports that (present tense) (Refers to just-published paper of current importance) Smith has reported that (present perfect tense) (Refers to recent past and implies 'continuing intellectual importance') Smith reported that (past tense) (Refers to a past & completed event )

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Use clear pronoun

"To decrease blood volume by about 10% in a few minutes, blood was pooled in the subjects' legs by placing wide congesting cuffs around the thighs and inflating them to diastolic brachial arterial pressure. the cuffs.

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Put parallel ideas in parallel form

Parallel ideas are ideas that are equal in logic and importance. Examples: ideas that are joined by "and" "or" or "but" or ideas that are being compared.

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Cardiac output was less in the E. coli group than the pseudomonas group. Cardiac output was less in the E. coli group than in the pseudomonas group.
Left ventricular function was impaired in the dogs that received endotoxin but not the control dogs Left ventricular function was impaired in the dogs that received endotoxin and not in the control dogs
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 The children with arteriovenous shunts had the shunts opened, heparin injected, and the arterial and venous sides of the shunt clamped.

In the children who had arteriovenous shunts, the shunts were opened, heparin was injected, and the arterial and venous sides of the shunt were clamped.

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 An increased in heart rate occurred. Heart rate increased.

The new drug caused a decrease in heart rate. The new drug decreased heart rate.
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 Evaporation of ethanol from the mixture takes place rapidly. Ethanol evaporates rapidly from the mixture.

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Tumors greater than 10 cm in diameter are associated with poor prognosis..

Patients with tumors greater than 10 cm in diameter are associated with poor prognosis.
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In some instances the possibility exists that the solvent, and not the drug, may be responsible for adverse reactions.

Sometimes the solvent, and not the

drug, may be responsible for adverse reactions.

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The etiology of delusion of pregnancy is likely to be heterogeneous.

The etiology of delusion of

pregnancy is likely to be multifactorial.

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The first study was abandoned due to poor patient compliance.

Owing to poor compliance by the patients the first study was abandoned.

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The study involved 15 consenting healthy adult males.

Fifteen consenting and healthy subjects took part in the study.

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Punctuation
Some Rules of Punctuation

A semi-colon (;) is almost a full stop; Use a colon (:) to introduce a list; Separate the items on a list by commas (,) not semi-colons (unless the items could themselves be sentences or have commas within them); Never separate a subject from its verb by a single punctuation mark.

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 Period

(full stop).(.)
mark (single or double) '' ""

Quotation

Question

mark: ? mark: ! Hyphen: 28

Exclamation

Slash:

/ Dash: Apostrophe: '

Writing Paragraph

Send a clear message and tell a clear story Organization: Deductive paragraph Continuity Emphasis: emphasize important information and de-emphasize less important information
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Nutrition
Nutrition is the science of food and its relationship to health. Nutrients are chemicals in foods that are used by the body for growth, maintenance, and energy. Nutrients that cannot be synthesized by the body and thus must be derived from the diet are considered essential. They include vitamins, minerals, some amino acids, and fatty acids. Nutrients that the body can synthesize from compounds, although they must also be derived from the diet, are considered nonessential. Macronutrients are required by the body in relatively large amounts; micronutrients are needed in minute amounts. Lack of nutrients can result in deficiency syndromes (e.g. kwashiorkor, pellagra) or other disorders. Excess intake of macronutrients can lead to obesity; excess intake of micronutrients can be toxic. 30

Questions 1) How many paragraphs are found in the passage? 2) What is main message/thought/idea of each paragraph? 3) How is paragraph 1 constructed? Explain your answer! 4) What do you think about the construction of paragraph 2? Explain your answer!
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Suggested answers
1) 2) 3) 4) Two paragraphs Paragraph 1: The concepts of nutrition Paragraph 2: Clinical patterns of nutritional disorders Paragraph 1: Deductive paragraph Function of nutrients Types of nutrient: essential/nonessential nutrients; macro/micro-nutrients Paragraph 2: Topic sentence is missing, but the main thought is implicit in the message of the paragraph. It resembles a (modified) deductive paragraph.
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Nutrition
Definition of nutrition (Food) Nutrients (Chemicals)

Types of nutrients (Types of chemicals) Essential and nonessential nutrients Macronutrients and micronutrients

Deductive Paragraph

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Write a deductive paragraph!

General

Specific

Specific

Specific

Specific

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Why should we learn to write well?

Becoming a better physician/clinician As part of our professional carrier Competing in the job market Fame Lifestyle

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Rules for Avoiding Plagiarism

Cite all quoted material and all summarized and paraphrased material, unless the information is common knowledge. Make sure that both the wording and the sentence structure of your summaries and paraphrases are substantially your own.
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The Anatomy of Thesis or Research Paper

Title Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion (Summary) References

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Basic principles for writing the sections

Title: Insulin Increases Hepatic Glycolysis and Glucoce Uptake of Myocyte Introduction The question or problem to be answered Brief, 2-3 paragraphs Aim and scope of the paper Purpose for undertaking the work How your investigation moves from closely related previous works Try to gain and keep the attention of the readers 40

Materials and Methods

How the answer was sought (Credibility evidence)

Justify your choice of the materials and methods used State the premises and assumptions made Audience: Colleagues with similar research experience Give the genus, species, race, strain, breed of the experimental animals used
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Results
Comprehensible and coherent Present your results in a logical order Report negative results of possible importantance to other workers Describe the measurements obtained Use tables and diagrams as needed
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Discussion
A discussion is a disquisition in which subject is treated from different sides Write this section only after you have thought long and hard about your own and other peoples findings You may criticize the scientific basis of other peoples work Do not conceal negative results or discrepancies
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Citing references

Norcini JJ. Peer assessment of competence. Med Educ 2003;37:539-43. Chang JT, Hays RD, Shekelle PG, et al. Patients' global ratings of their health care are not associated with the technical quality of their care. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:665-72.
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Chemotherapeutic options in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials. CLL Trialists' collaborative Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91(10):861-8. (PUBMED Abstract) Maddock-Christianson K, Slager SL, Zent CS, et al: Risk factors for development of a second lymphoid malignancy in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Br J Haematol 2007;139(3):398-404. (PUBMED
Abstract)

Robertson LE, Pugh W, O'Brien S, et al: Richter syndrome: a report on 39 patients. J Clin Oncol 1993;11(10):1985-9. (PUBMED Abstract)

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Further reading
OConnor M, Woodford FP: Writing scientific papers in English. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1977 Goodman NW, Edwards MB: Medical writing: A prescription for clarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed. 1997

Murrell G, Huang C, Ellis H: Research in medicine: Planning a project - writing a thesis. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1999
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