X-RAY FILM, FILM PROCESSING &

SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

 X-ray film
 Film processing

 H& D curves

 Reduction of scatter

 Single wall & double wall

Techniques
 Multi film techniques etc

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FILM PROCESSING

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 FILM PROCESSING STEPS
 Immersion in a developer solution & agitation
 Exposed Ag grains reduced to black metallic Silver

 Water rinse / Acid stop bath

 To stop developing action on the film.

 Immersion in fixing bath & agitation

 Unexposed Ag grains washed-off & Image fixed;Film
hardened
 Water wash
 To remove fixer & products of fixing from film
emulsion.
 Immersion in a wetting solution
 To help even drying & prevent spotting on films

 Drying

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 Development
 A chemical reduction in which silver halides
reduced to metallic silver
 Reaction limited to those grains that have
received more than a certain minimum exposure
to radiation
 Role of latent image in development
 Acts as an electron-conducting bridge
 A molecule of a developing agent gives an electron to an
exposed silver bromide grain, not to an unexposed grain
 This electron combine with a silver (Ag+) ion of the
crystal producing an atom of silver
 This process repeated many times
 until all the billions of silver ions in a photographic
grain turned into metallic silver.

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 Development process
 electrons supplied by developer
solution
 combine with silver ions of crystal
lattice.
 Latent image process
 electron is freed by the action of
radiation
 Both processes involve
 union of a silver ion and an electron to
produce an atom of metallic silver.
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 Developer constituents
 Developing Agent
 Metol-hydroquinone or Phenidone-hydroquinone

 Reduces exposed silver halide grains to metallic silver

 Activity of developing agents depends on ,alkalinity of
solution
 Accelerator (Alkali)
 Speeds-up development
 Provides buffering action to counteract liberation of
hydrogen ions, a tendency toward acidity
 Alkali chemicals:
 Sodium carbonate, Potassium carbonate, Sodium
hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, borax

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 A Preservative
 To protect developing agent from oxidation by air ,
Sodium sulfite.
 Maintains development rate (alkaline reaction)

 prevents formation of staining of photographic

layer.
 A Restrainer
 Anti-foggant, Potassium bromide
 decreases possible concentration of silver ions in solution,
 protect unexposed grains from the action of the developer
 Both tend to reduce formation of fog.

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 MANUAL PROCESSING STEPS
 Exposed film mounted on a hanger & held securely
 Film immersed for pre-determined intervals in
 Developer solution
 Powder form economical to buy, dissolved in water
 liquid form offers greater convenience in preparation
 level of the developer solution must be kept constant
 By adding replenisher activity of developer kept
constant
 At frequent intervals films must be agitated

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CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE AND TIME
• Temperature checked immediately before films
immersed in developer
• mechanical refrigeration to maintain developer
Temperature
• Development Temperature & Time
• 5 to 6 Minutes at 20°C ; No Guesswork.
• A temperature below 16°C
 retards developing the action & result in underdevelopment,
 High temperatures above 24°C
 Produces fog
 softens emulsion to separate from the base
 ice placed directly in processing solutions
 will dilute developer solution & cause contamination..

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 FILM AGITATION
 Hangers tapped two or three times on the upper edge
of the tank
 to dislodge any bubbles clinging to emulsion.
 Acceptable agitation
 films are shaken vertically and horizontally
 moved from side to side for a few seconds every minute
 Methods of renewal of developer at the surface of
film
 obtained by lifting the film clear of the developer
 allowing it to drain from one corner for 2 or 3 seconds
 reinserting it into the developer & then repeating the
procedure
.
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 FILM AGITATION
 Developer artefacts
 reaction products of development flow downward over film
surface
 retard development in areas beneath
 Result-in variations in film density (uneven development)

 show up as streaks
 Too many hangers in developer
 causes streaks & mottled appearance in radiographs in areas
that receive a uniform exposure
 “sight development“
 leads to a high level of fog
 caused by excessive exposure to safelights during
development.

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STREAKS

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 ACTIVITY OF DEVELOPER SOLUTIONS
 Developing power decreases because of
 developing agent consumed as it changes exposed silver
bromide to metallic silver
 restraining effect of accumulated reaction products of the
development
 Decrease in activity
 depends on the number of films processed
 Density to which they are processed.
 aerial oxidation
 Replenishment means
 addition of a stronger-than-original solution maintaining
liquid level in the developing tank
 Restoring developer to its approximate original strength.

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 REPLENSHMENT
 Quantity of replenisher required depends on
 average density of radiographs processed
 replenisher added at frequent intervals
 as density increases after replenishing are kept at a
minimum
 Quantity of replenisher added each time
 not to exceed 2 %-3% of the volume of the developer
 solution discarded when the replenisher used
equals
 two to three times the original quantity of the developer
 After three months
 because of aerial oxidation . buildup of gelatin, sludge, and solid
impurities.

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 ARRESTING DEVELOPMENT
 films removed from developer
 allowed to drain 1or 2 seconds (not back into the developer
tank)
 Immersed & stirred in stop bath (18-21°C) 30-60 seconds or
 rinsed in clean running water 2 min
 Stop Bath
 28 % acetic acid 125 mL/litre of water
 glacial acetic acid35 mL/ litre of water
 Add glacial acetic acid to the water slowly, stirring constantly
 If development is not arrested using stop bath
 Upset Chemical balance of fixer solution
 destroy hardening action
 Artifacts (stop-bath stage)
 Streakiness
 stains in radiographs

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 FIXING
 to remove all of the undeveloped silver salt of the
emulsion
 leaving the developed silver as a permanent image.

 hardening the gelatin

 film will withstand subsequent drying with warm air

 Clearing Time
 Interval between placing the film in the fixer solution
and disappearance of diffuse yellow milkiness
 Films agitated in fixer, every 2 minutes

 total fixing time should be 2 times clearing time, not to

exceed 15 minutes

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  usefulness of a fixer solution ended, when
clearing requires long interval
 when it has lost its acidity

 An exhausted fixer solution causes abnormal

swelling of the emulsion and drying unduly
prolonged
 Artifacts (Fixing stage)
 At high temperatures reticulation or sloughing
away of emulsion takes place
 neutralization of the acid in the fixer solution
frequently causes colored stains to appear on the
processed radiographs.

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 Washing
 X-ray films should be washed for 30 minutes in running
water at 16 to 27°C
 circulated so that entire emulsion area, receives frequent
changes, rate of water flow of four renewals per hour
 Bar of the hanger and the top clips should always be
covered completely by the running water
 Films placed in the wash tank near the outlet end & moved
toward the inlet
 Artifact (washing stage)
 insufficient washing
 leads to later discoloration or fading of the image

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cascade washing unit.
 DRYING
 suitable driers used with built-in fans, filters and heaters or
desiccants
 Radiographs dry best in warm, dry air that is changing constantly.
 Prevention of water spots
 When films removed from wash tanks drops of water cling to the
surfaces of emulsions
 Areas under the drops dry more slowly than the surrounding
areas If films dried rapidly,.
 uneven drying causes distortion of gelatin, changing the density
of the silver image,
 results in spots
 Prevention methods
 washed films immersed for 1 or 2 minutes in a wetting agent
 wetting agent solution causes surplus water to drain off the
film more evenly
 reduces number of clinging drops & drying time .

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 Chemistry of Automated Processing
 Automated processing a system depending on
interrelation of mechanics, chemicals, and film.
 mixing instructions with chemicals followed exactly.
 processing chemicals prevent the emulsion from
swelling or becoming either slippery, soft, or sticky.
 if a film becomes slippery, it could slow down in the
transport system,
 films following it could catch up and overlap
 or get stuck or even wrap around a roller.
 If the emulsion becomes too soft it is damaged by
rollers.

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 Automatic Film-Processing
 The roller transport system
 backbone of an automated
processor
 rollers driven by a constant speed
motor.
 rollers arranged in a number of
assemblies
 entrance roller, racks
 turnarounds (which reverse direction
of film travel within a tank)
 crossovers, (which transfer films from
one tank to another), and
 a squeegee assembly (which removes
surface water) after washing cycle
 time interval from insertion of an
unprocessed film to the delivery of a
dry radiograph
 8 to 12 minutes.

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 Filing Radiographs
 placed in a heavy manila envelope of the proper
size
 essential identification data written on the
envelope filed.
 Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a
center seam, and joined with a non hygroscopic
adhesive Ideally, radiographs should
 be stored at a relative humidity of 30 to 50
percent.

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