Consociationalism in Malaysian Politics

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Consociationalism during the Alliance Era

Alliance as a political party was formally registered in 1958. Although Malayas politics did not fully conform to Lijpharts consociationalism, it involved the articulation of the characteristics of consociationalism.

The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual Balancing

Proportionality means that all groups influence a decision in proportion to their numerical strength. The Alliance had two supreme bodies: National Council and National Executive Committee. National Executive Committee comprised of 6 UMNO, 6 MCA and 3 MIC leaders.

The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual Balancing

The National Council consisted of 16 UMNO, 16 MCA and 6 MIC leaders. UMNO leaders were allotted important posts, but MCA was given influential posts too, e.g., Minister of Finance, and Minister of Commerce and Industry. MCA was also influential in persuading UMNO not to nominate certain leaders perceived to be anti-Chinese [as ministers], e.g., Syed Jaafar Albar and Syed Nasir Ismail.

The Structure of the Alliance: Proportionality and Mutual Balancing

However, proportionality did not give non-Malays matching power in governance. Key posts in cabinet and the civil service were predominated by the Malays.

Consociational Practices: Compromise and Concession

Intense bargaining was done behind closed doors. Public discussion of controversial communal issues was deliberately avoided. Avoidance model of conflict management.

Consociational Practices: Compromise and Concession

1.

The Package Deals of Constitutional Contract. Malay special rights received specific constitutional status in Article 153, nonMalays were given liberal citizenship regulations. Malay was to become sole official language from 1967, but the teaching or learning of Chinese and Tamil languages were not prohibited.

Consociational Practices: Compromise and Concession

2.

National Language Bill 1967 As 1967 approached, many Chinese were reluctant to accept Malay Language as the sole national language. They wanted their rights to learn their language be continued. Malay ultras wanted Malay language to be declared the sole official language as per constitutional contract.

Consociational Practices: Compromise and Concession

On the initiative of the Tunku, the National Language Bill was introduced on 24 February 1967. The bill provided for the implementation of Malay as the sole official language, but it also allowed the continued use of English for official purposes and a liberal use of the non-Malay languages for nongovernmental and non-official purposes.

Towards the Breakdown of Consociationalism

Singapores challenge to Malaysian political scheme, The end of external threat1967 resumption of diplomatic relations between Malaysia and Indonesia, Controversies over the National Language Bill, Challenge to the Tunkus leadership.

The Decline of Consociationalism in Malaysia

1. 2. 3.

The 13 May 1969 ethnic riot. Causes? Tunku: Communism, Tun Dr. Ismail: Opposition parties NOC:
1. Malay dissatisfaction over policies, 2. Non-Malay provocation of Malay sensitivities, 3. Malays growing sense of insecurity.

Growing Ethnic Sentiment

Political mood in 1969 was different. Two Chinese-based parties with wide appeal emergedDAP and Gerakan. First time Alliance faced well-mobilized Chinese parties. Alliances challengecommunal parties. PAS accused UMNO of selling Malay rights. DAP and Gerakan accused MCA of selling Chinese rights. Hence, politicization of ethnic issues.

1969 Elections

Alliance lost control of Penang [4/24], Perak [19/40] and Kelantan [11/30]. It involved in a tie [14/28] in Selangor. Why did the riot happen in Selangor, not in Penang or Perak?
1. In Selangor, it involved transfer of power from Malays to Chinese [Peraks ethnic tension was rather low], 2. In Selangor, the Malays felt that the Chinese had betrayed the consociational bargain, 3. Political processions.

Ethnic Polarization

The government did help the Malays, through FLDA (1956), RIDA (1950 later MARA, 1965), FAMA (1952), and Bank Bumiputera (1965). Their capacities, however, were low. E.g., Total commercial loan in 1969 was RM 1.8 b. From 1951-70, total loan from RIDA (MARA) was only RM 70 m.

Ethnic Polarization

Imbalance was apparent in two areas:

1. EconomyMalay ownership was far behind the Chinese, and overseas, interests, 2. Educationlow number in professional areas.

Ethnic Issues
Major issues were: 1. The struggle over political power and the material benefits that flow from it, 2. The question of identity. Economic disparities can be tackled by measures to reduce the disparity. Political rivalries can be tempered by power-sharing. Cultural perceptions are less susceptible to bargaining and compromise.

Ethnic Perceptions
Generally, the Malays perceived Malaya as their homeland, nonMalays as immigrants. Non-Malays also perceived Malaya as their homeland, and they had little attachment to the countries their forefathers came from. [this explains why the concept of Malaysian Malaysia appealed to some segments of the non-Malay society.

Language and Education

Access to education depends on language. English deprived many Malays to good education. The switch to Malay as medium of instruction (1970) saw many Chinese opted for Chinese schools (although they were prepared to enter English-medium schools before). Between 1971-78, percentage of Chinese who went to Chinese schools rose from 78% to 88%.

Sensitive Educational Issues

1.

2.

3.

1973, huge number of failures in Malay language among Chinese in the MCE examination, 1982, introduction of 3Rs materials were in Malay, 1987, appointment of non-Mandarin teachers as administrators in Chinese schools.

Sensitive Educational Issues

1960s, Chinese (DJZ, DZ) demanded a Chinese-medium universityUniversiti Merdeka. MCA was in an awkward position. Then, government allowed the establishment of TAR College. Quota? From 1978, quota for non-Malays were increased, to be 55-45 by 1988.

Cultural Issues
1.

2.

3.

National culture must be based on indigenous regional culture, Suitable elements from others may be included, Islam as important component in the molding of the national culture. Chinese reactions: policies tainted with communalism; policies tended towards forced assimilation. The Chinese called for cultural pluralism.

Religious Issues

Conversion Halal-haram Islamization

Population Growth and Immigration

Indonesians got easier chance to be citizens than the Vietnamese. Population growth favored the Malays. This may help reduce Malay insecurity.