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Metal Forming

Instructor: Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal

Metal Forming
Plastic deformation to change the shape of a metal workpiece

using a tool, called a die, by applying a stress that exceeds the


Yield Strength of the metal Stresses are typically compressive:
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

However, some forming processes


Stretch the metal (tensile stresses) Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive) Still others apply shear

Importance of Bulk Deformation


In hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished In cold working, strength can be increased during shape change Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net shape processes The parts require little or no subsequent machining

Material Behavior in Metal Forming


Plastic region of stress-strain curve is of primary interest because material is plastically deformed In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:

K
exponent.

where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening

Flow curve based on true stress and true strain

Flow Stress
For metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to strain hardening Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material

Yf K

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a function of strain

Temperature in Metal Forming


K and n in the flow curve depend on temperature
At higher temperatures both K and n are: At higher temperatures ductility is:

Thus, the force and power required to perform deformation operations at elevated temperatures are: Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working Warm working Hot working

Temperature in Metal Forming


Isothermal Forming
Certain metals, such as highly alloyed steels, many titanium alloys, and hightemperature nickel alloys, possess good hot hardness, a property that makes them useful for high-temperature service. However, this very property that makes them attractive in these applications also makes them difficult to form with conventional methods. The problem is that when these metals are heated to their hot working temperatures and then come in contact with the relatively cold forming tools, heat is quickly transferred away from the part surfaces, thus raising the strength in these regions. The variations in temperature and strength in different regions of the workpiece cause irregular flow patterns in the metal during deformation, leading to high residual stresses and possible surface cracking. Isothermal forming refers to forming operations that are carried out in such a way as to eliminate surface cooling and the resulting thermal gradients in the workpart. It is accomplished by preheating the tools that come in contact with the part to the same temperature as the work metal. This weakens the tools and reduces tool life, but it avoids the problems described above when these difficult metals are formed by conventional methods. In some cases, isothermal forming represents the only way in which these work materials can be formed.

Cold Working
Performed at room temperature Many cold forming processes are important mass production operations Minimum or no machining usually required
These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

Advantages of Cold Forming


Better accuracy, closer tolerances Better surface finish Strain hardening = strength and hardness Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in product No heating of work required

Disadvantages of Cold Forming


Forces and power required in the deformation operation are: Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of

scale and dirt


Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of

forming that can be done, metal may not be


ductile enough to be cold worked

Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room temperature i.e. 0.3 Tm- 0.5 Tm Dividing line between cold working and warm

working often expressed in terms of melting


point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

Advantages of Warm Working


Lower forces and power than in cold working More intricate work geometries possible

Need for annealing may be reduced or


eliminated

Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures in the range of

0.5Tm 0.75 Tm
In practice, hot working usually performed

somewhat above 0.75Tm


Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.75Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

Advantages of Hot Working


Workpart shape can be significantly altered Lower forces and power required Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed Strength properties of product are generally No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently processed by cold forming

Disadvantages of Hot Working


Lower dimensional accuracy Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece) Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish Shorter tool life

What is Strain Rate?


Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of deformation v Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other movement of the equipment Strain rate is defined:

where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed

v h

Strain Rate Sensitivity


Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0
The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once that stress is reached However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation, especially at elevated temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress


Flow stress is a function of temperature At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate
As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress


Effect of temperature on flow stress for a typical metal. The flow stress decreases with increase in temperature and tends to increase with increase

in strain rate.

Basic Types of Deformation Processes

Basic Types of Deformation Processes


1. Bulk deformation starting material has low surface area to volume (e.g. billets & bars)
Rolling Forging Extrusion Wire and bar drawing

2. Sheet metalworking starting material has high surface area to volume (e.g. sheet & coils)
Bending Deep drawing Cutting

Rolling

Forging

Extrusion

Wire and Bar Drawing

Sheet Metalworking
Often called press working
Parts are often called stampings Usual tooling: punch and die

Bending

Cutting

Forging
Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 B.C. Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish components and parts that are subsequently machined to final shape and size

Types of Forging Dies


Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum constraint Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is imparted to workpart
Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created

Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die


No excess flash is created

Open-Die Forging
Compression of work-part between two flat dies Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of work Common names include Upsetting or Flat die forging.

Open-Die Forging with No Friction


If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is uniform throughout workpart height and true strain is given by:

ho ln h

Open-Die Forging with Friction


Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in barreling effect In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation

Impression-Die Forging
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between die plates Flash serves an important function: As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against die plates

Impression-Die Forging Practice


Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for each step
Beginning steps redistribute metal for more

uniform deformation and desired metallurgical


structure in subsequent steps

Final steps bring the part to final geometry

Advantages and Limitations


Advantages of impression-die forging compared to machining from solid stock:
Higher production rates Saving of metal Finished part strength Favorable grain orientation in the metal

Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed

Flashless Forging
Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume within very close tolerance Process control more demanding than impression-die forging Accurate control of volume of material. Close tolerances can be achieved by proper die design. Good die life.

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Diagram of Flat Rolling


There is a point on the roll where the work velocity equals the roll velocity, this is the Neutral or no slip point. Friction is zero on either side of this point. The friction is expressed in terms of coefficient of friction . The reduction in thickness of the plate is called DRAFT, expressed as (to tf). Draft is the function of coefficient of friction and roll radius R. i.e. the larger the coefficient of friction and roll radius, the draft becomes the maximum and hence the maximum reduction in thickness is possible.

Rolling Issues
With Hot rolling, material properties are improved, but dimensional tolerances are not as tight, and surface oxidation occurs. Wavy Edges Zipper Edge cracks

Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section rather than flat (rectangular) Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired shape Products include:
Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels Rails for railroad tracks Round and square bars and rods

Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines The grain distribution in thread rolling are more improved and beneficial as compared to thread machining.

Upsetting and Heading


Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar hardware products More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging operation Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or formers Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is cut to length For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads

Upsetting
An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the head.

Heading (Upset Forging)


Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die, (e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die.

Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies

Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock


Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging
Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they hammer the work In radial forging, the workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they hammer the work.

Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross sections Two basic types:
Direct extrusion Indirect extrusion

Direct Extrusion
Also called forward extrusion As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that cannot be forced through die opening This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extrudate by cutting it just beyond the die exit Starting billet cross section usually round Final shape of extrudate is determined by die opening

Direct Extrusion

Indirect extrusion
Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section. Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
Lower rigidity of hollow ram Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die

Hot vs. Cold Extrusion


Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its recrystallization temperature
Reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal, permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes

Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts


The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold extrusion Material possess some degree of strain-hardening

Complex Cross Section

A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink (photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of America)

Wire and Bar Drawing


Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion) Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die opening

Wire and Bar Drawing


Drawing of bar, rod, or wire

Area Reduction in Drawing


Change in size of work is usually given by area reduction:
Ao Af r Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area of work; and Ar = final work

Wire Drawing
Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock through upstream die Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is achieved by the series Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work hardening

Continuous drawing of wire

Features of a Draw Die


Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of work and die Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs Bearing surface - determines final stock size Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle (half-angle) of about 30

Sheet metal forming


Sheet metal forming is a grouping of many complementary processes that are used to form sheet metal parts. One or more of these processes is used to take a flat sheet of ductile metal, and mechanically apply deformation forces that alter the shape of the material. Before deciding on the processes), one should determine whether a particular sheet metal can be formed into the desired shape without failure. The sheet metal operations done on a press may be grouped into two categories, cutting (shearing) operations and forming operations.

Cutting (Shearing) Operations


In this operation, the workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength. The stresses caused in the metal by the applied forces will be shearing stresses. The cutting operations include: Punching (Piercing) Blanking Notching Perforating Slitting Lancing Parting Shaving Trimming Fine blanking

Shearing Operations
Punching (Piercing): It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in sheet metal. Punching is similar to blanking except that in punching, the hole is the desired product, the material punched out to form the hole being waste. Blanking: Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape sheet metal. The article punched out is called the blank and is the required product of the operation. The hole and metal left behind is discarded as waste.

Shearing Operations
Notching: This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet, strip or blank. Perforating: This is a process by which multiple holes which are very small and close together are cut in flat work material. Slitting: It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a workpiece. Lancing: This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side is bent down to form a sort of tab. Since no metal is actually removed, there will be no scrap. Parting: Parting involves cutting a sheet metal strip by a punch with two cutting edges that match the opposite sides of the blank.

Shearing Operations
Shaving: The edge of blanked parts is generally rough, uneven and unsquare. Accurate dimensions of the part are obtained by removing a thin strip of metal along the edges. Trimming: This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess material from the periphery of previously formed components. Fine blanking: Fine blanking is a operation used to blank sheet metal parts with close tolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step.

Shearing Dies
Because the formability of a sheared part can be influenced by the quality of its sheared edges, clearance control is important. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 8% of the sheets thickness; generally, the thicker the sheet, the larger is the clearance (as much as 10%). However, the smaller the clearance, the better is the quality of the edge. Some common shearing dies are describe below: Punch and Die Shapes: As the surfaces of the punch and die are flat; thus, the punch force builds up rapidly during shearing, because the entire thickness of the sheet is sheared at the same time. However, the area being sheared at any moment can be controlled be beveling the punch and die surfaces, as shown in the following Figure. This geometry is particularly suitable for shearing thick blanks, because it reduces the total shearing force.

Compound Dies
Several operations on the same strip may be performed in one stroke with a compound die in one station. These operations are usually limited to relatively simple shearing because they are somewhat slow and the dies are more expensive than those for individual shearing operations.
(a) (b)

Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the hole in the washer).

Progressive Dies
Parts requiring multiple operations, such as punching, blanking and notching are made at high production rates in progressive dies. The sheet metal is fed through a coil strip and a different operation is performed at the same station with each stroke of a series of punches.

(a) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die.

Forming Operations
In this operation, the stresses are below the ultimate strength of the metal. In this operation, there is no cutting of the metal but only the contour of the workpiece is changed to get the desired product. The forming operations include: Bending: In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or strip, is uniformly strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane and perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of the sheet or metal. The bending operations include:
V-bending Edge bending Roll bending Air bending Flanging Dimpling

Press break forming Beading Roll forming Tube forming Bulging Stretch forming

Drawing: This is a process of a forming a flat workpiece into a hollow shape by means of a punch, which causes the blank to flow into die cavity. Squeezing: Under this operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die cavity under the action of compressive forces.

Bending of Flat Sheet and Plate

V-bending

Edge bending

Roll bending

Bending in 4-slide machine

Air bending

Flanging
Flanging is a process of bending the edges of sheet metals to 90o Shrink flanging subjected to compressive hoop stress. Stretch flanging subjected to tensile stresses

Dimpling
First hole is punched and expanded into a flange Flanges can be produced by piercing with shaped punch When bend angle < 90 degrees as in fitting conical ends its called flanging

Press break forming


Sheet metal or plate can be bent easily with simple fixtures using a press. Long and relatively narrow pieces are usually bent in a press break. This machine utilizes long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press and is suitable for small production runs. The tooling is simple and adaptable to a wide variety of shapes.

Beading
In beading the edge of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a die. The bead gives stiffness to the part by increasing the moment on inertia of the edges. Also, it improves the appearance of the part and eliminates exposed sharp edges

(a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake.

Roll forming
For bending continuous lengths of sheet metal and for large production runs, roll forming is used. The metal strip is bent in stages by passing it through a series of rolls.

Stages in roll forming of a sheet-metal door frame. In Stage 6, the rolls may be shaped as in A or B.

Tube Bending
Bending and forming tubes and other hollow sections require special tooling to avoid buckling and folding. The oldest method of bending a tube or pipe is to pack the inside with loose particles, commonly used sand and bend the part in a suitable fixture. This techniques prevents the tube from buckling. After the tube has been bent, the sand is shaken out. Tubes can also be plugged with various flexible internal mandrels.

Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels,or the filling of tubes with particulate materials such as sand,are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending .Solid rods and structural shapes can also be bent by these techniques

Bulging
The basic forming process of bulging involves placing tabular, conical or curvilinear part into a split-female die and expanding it with, say, a polyurethane plug. The punch is then retracted, the plug returns to its original shape and the part is removed by opening the dies.

(a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to produce a T. (c) Manufacturing of Bellows.

Stretch Forming
In stretch forming, the sheet metal is clamped around its edges and stretched over a die or form block, which moves upward, downward or sideways, depending on the particular machine. Stretch forming is used primarily to make aircraft-wing skin panel, automobile door panels and window frames.

Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft can be made by this process.

Hydroform (or) Fluid Forming Process


In hydroforming or fluid forming process, the pressure over the rubber membrane is controlled throughout the forming cycle, with maximum pressure reaching 100 MPa (15000 psi). This procedure allows close control of the part during forming to prevent wrinkling or tearing. When selected properly, rubber forming and hydroforming processes have the following advantages: Low tooling cost Flexibility and ease of operation Low die wear No damage to the surface of the sheet and Capability to form complex shapes.

The hydroform (or fluid forming) process. Note that, in contrast to the ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.

Deep Drawing Processes


Drawing operation is the process of forming a flat piece of material (blank) into a hollow shape by means of a punch, which causes the blank to flow into the die-cavity. Round sheet metal block is placed over a circular die opening and held in a place with blank holder & punch forces down into the die cavity. Wrinkling occurs at the edges. Shallow drawing: depth of formed cup D/2 Deep or moderate drawing: depth of formed cup > D/2

(a) deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.

Drawing Operations

Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing.

Redrawing Operations
Containers or shells that are too difficult to draw in one operation are generally redrawn. In reverse redrawing, shown in following Figure, the metal is subjected to bending in the direction opposite to its original bending configuration. This reversal in bending results in strain softening. This operation requires lower forces than direct redrawing and the material behaves in a more ductile manner.

Reducing the diameter of drawn cups by redrawing operations: (a) conventional redrawing and (b) reverse redrawing. Small-diameter deep containers undergo many drawing and redrawing operations.

Top of Aluminum Can

Metal-Forming Process for Beverage Can

Steps in Manufacturing an Aluminum Can

The metal-forming processes involved in manufacturing a two-piece aluminum beverage can

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