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Jennifer Jenkins
A. Introduction
English as a first language (L1) English as an institutionalised second language (L2) English as a foreign language (EFL) English as a lingua franca (ELF)
A1
First diaspora: Migrations to North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa; L1 varieties of English = new Englishes Second diaspora: Colonialisation of Asia and Africa; L2 varieties of English = New Englishes
A1
Definition pidgin A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no ones first language but is a contact language.
(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)
Definition creole In contrast to a pidgin, a creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)
A2
Pidgins
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Stigmatisation as inferior, bad languages European expansion into Africa and Asia during colonial period Contact languages between dominant European language speakers and speakers of mutually unintelligible indigenous African and American languages Fulfils restricted communicative needs between people who do not share a common language Little need for grammatical redundancy
A2
Creoles
Creolisation: development of a pidgin into a creole A: children of pidgin speakers use their parents pidgin language as a mother tongue creole B: pidgin is used as a lingua franca in multilingual areas and develops to be used for an increasing number of functions creole - Vocabulary expands and grammar increases in complexity Decreolisation: through extensive contact with the dominant language develops towards standard A2 dominant language
Theories of origins
Three groups of theories 1 Monogenesis: pidgins have a single origin 2 Polygenesis: pidgins have an independent origin 3 Universal: pidgins derive from universal strategies
A2
Monogenesis
The theory of monogenesis and relexification: -All European-based pidgins and creoles derive ultimately from one proto-pidgin source, a Portuguese pidgin that was used in the worlds trade routes during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries -Evidence for this theory: many linguistic similarities between present-day Portuguese pidgins and creoles, and pidgins and creoles related to other European languages
A2
Polygenesis
The independent parallel development theory: -Pidgins and creoles arose and developed independently, but in similar ways because they shared a common linguistic ancestor -Pidgins and creoles were formed in similar social and physical conditions
A2
Polygenesis
The nautical jargon theory: A nautical jargon, i.e. the European sailors lingua franca, formed a nucleus for the various pidgins, which were expanded in line with their learners mother tongues Evidence for this theory: nautical element in all pidgins and creoles with European lexicons
A2
Universal
The baby talk theory: -Based on similarities between certain pidgins and early speech of children -Also because speakers of the dominant language use foreigner talk (simplified speech) with L2 speakers
A2
Universal
A synthesis: -Based on universal patterns of linguistic behaviour in contact situations -Inherent universal constraints on language -Evidence for this theory: proficient as well as less proficient speakers from different L1s and speech communities simplify their language in very similar ways; children go through the same stages in the mastery of speech
A2
Those who speak English respectively as - a native language = ENL - a second language = ESL - a foreign language = EFL Neat classifications become increasingly difficult
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A3
ENL is not a single variety of English Pidgins and creoles do not fit into the categorisation. There are large groups of ENL speakers in ESL territories and vice versa. It is based on the concept of monolingualism, but bior multilingualism is the norm. It is based on the basic distinction between native speakers and non-native speakers, with the first group being considered superior regardless of the quality of their language. (cf. McArthur 1998) A3
Strevens (1980): World map of English Kachru (1985/1988): Three-circle model of World Englishes McArthur (1987): Circle of World English Grlach (1988): Circle model of English
A3
3 Expanding Circle:
~EFL countries, norm-dependent
A3
Based on geography and history, rather than the speakers use of English. Grey area between Inner and Outer Circles as well as Outer and Expanding Circles. The worlds bilingual or multilingual speakers are not taken into account. Difficulty of using the model to define speakers in terms of their proficiency in English. Does not account for the linguistic diversity within and between countries of a particular circle. The term Inner Circle implies that speakers from ENL countries are central, and may thus be interpreted as superior.
A3
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It has developed through the education system. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not the language spoken by most of the population. It is used for a range of functions among those who speak or write it in the region where it is used. It has become localised or nativised by adopting some language features of its own (e.g., sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, words, expressions).
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Innovation in English
1 2 3 4 5
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Levels of variation
A4
Levels of variation
Grammar
a tendency not to mark nouns for plural a tendency to use a specific/non-specific system for nouns rather than a definite/indefinite system, or to use the two systems side by side a tendency to change the form of quantifiers a tendency not to make a distinction between the third person pronouns he and she a tendency to change the word order within the noun phrase (cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)
A4
Levels of variation
Grammar
limited marking of the third person singular present tense form limited marking of verbs for the past tense a tendency to use an aspect system (which shows whether an action is finished or still going on) rather than tense system (which shows the time an action takes place) a tendency to extend the use of be + verb + ing constructions to stative verbs the formation of different phrasal and prepositional verb constructions (cf. Platt, Weber and Ho 1984)
A4
Levels of variation
Vocabulary/Idiom
Locally coined words/expressions Prefixation (e.g., enstool, destool) Suffixation (e.g., teacheress, spacy) Compounding (e.g., key-bunch, high hat) Borrowings from indigenous languages Idioms Direct translations from indigenous idioms (e.g., to shake legs) Variation on native speaker idioms (e.g., to eat your cake and have it) Combination of English and indigenous forms (e.g., to put sand A4 in someones gari)
Levels of variation
Discourse style
Formal character Complex vocabulary and grammatical structure Specific expressions of thanks, deferential vocabulary and the use of blessings Greeting and leave-taking
A4
Standard language Term used for that variety of a language which is considered to be the norm. Prestige variety: spoken by a minority of those occupying positions of power within a society Yardstick against which other varieties of the language are measured Held up as optimum for educational purposes
A5
Language standards Prescriptive language rules which constitute the standard to which all members of a language community are exposed and urged to conform during education. Reverse side of the standard language coin Because natural languages are dynamic, these rules are subject to change over time. During earlier and transitional stages, language change is regarded as error by promoters of A5 standard language ideology.
1 2 3 4
Four stages of this process of intervention Selection Codification Elaboration of function Acceptance
A5
It is not a language: it is only one variety of a given English. It is not an accent: in Britain it is spoken by 1215% of the population, of whom 912% speak it with a regional accent. It is not a style: it can be spoken in formal, neutral and informal styles, respectively. It is not a register: given that a register is largely a matter of lexis in relation to subject matter (e.g. the register of medicine, of cricket, or of knitting), there is no necessary connection between register and Standard English It is not a set of prescriptive rules: it can tolerate certain features which, because many of their rules are grounded in Latin, prescriptive grammarians do not allow. (cf. Trudgill 1999)A5
Standard English
A dialect That differs from other dialects in that it has greater prestige That does not have an associated accent That does not form part of a geographical continuum. It is a purely social dialect.
(Trudgill 1999)
A5
Non-standard Englishes
Non-standard native English varieties New Englishes: standard and non-standard varieties
A5
Ambivalent attitude towards English as an international lingua franca Reasons for the international status of English: Historical reasons Internal political reasons External economic reasons Practical reasons Intellectual reasons Entertainment reasons Personal advantage/prestige (Crystal 1997)
A6
Intelligibility and identity: two opposing forces Mutual intelligibility: accent differences decrease
A6
Regional categorisation
South Asian varieties Southeast Asian and Pacific varieties East Asian varieties
Functional categorisation
Institutionalised varieties (Outer Circle) Non-institutionalised varieties (Expanding Circle)
A7
English in Europe
A7
Language distribution vs. language spread (Widdowson 1997) Difficulties inherent in the English language:
Orthographic Phonological Grammatical