Chapter 6

Histology and Physiology of Bones

Osteon
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Functions of the Skeletal System

Skeletal system has four components
Bones Cartilage Tendons Ligaments

Bones are organs composed of

Nerve tissue Vascular tissue

Function of Bones
Support: form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs Protection: provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs Movement: provide levers for muscles Storage: reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus Blood cell production: hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage and become chondrocytes Chondrocytes are located in lacunae surrounded by matrix The matrix of cartilage contains collagen fibers (for strength) and proteoglycans (trap water) The perichondrium surrounds cartilage
The outer layer contains fibroblasts The inner layer contains chondroblasts

Cartilage grows by appositional and interstitial growth

Fig. 6.1

Bone Histology
Bone Matrix
Approximately 35% organic and 65% inorganic material
Organic
Collagen provides flexible strength Proteoglycans

Inorganic
Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystal) provides weight-bearing strength

Effects of Changing the Bone Matrix

Fig. 6.2

Bone Histology
Bone Cells
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and become osteocytes
Osteoblasts connect to one another through cell processes and surround themselves with bone matrix to become osteocytes Osteocytes are located in lacunae and are connected to one another through canaliculi

Osteoclasts break down bone Osteoblasts originate from osteochondral progenitor cells Osteoclasts originate from stem cells in red bone marrow

Bone Histology
Ossification (Osteogenesis)
1. Osteoblasts on a preexisting surface, such as cartilage or bone. The cell processes of different osteoblasts join together 2. Osteoblasts have produced bone matrix. The osteoblasts are now osteocytes

Fig. 6.3

Bone Histology
Bone tissue is classified as either woven or lamellar bone, according to the organization of collagen fibers
Woven bone
Has collagen fibers oriented in many different directions It is remodeled to form lamellar bone

Lamellar bone
Mature bone Arranged in thin layers called lamellae Has collagen fibers oriented parallel to one another

Bone Histology
Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone matrix relative to the amount of space present within the bone
Cancellous bone has many spaces
Internal layer which is a honeycomb of trabeculae filled with red or yellow bone marrow

Compact bone is dense with few spaces

External layer

Fig. 6.4

Bone Histology
Cancellous
Lamellae combine to form trabeculae
Beams of bone that interconnect to form a lattice-like structure with spaces filled with bone marrow and blood vessels

Trabeculae are oriented along lines of stress and provide structural strength
Fig. 6.4

Bone Histology
Compact Bone
Consists of organized lamellae
Circumferential lamellae form the outer surface of compact bones Concentric lamellae surround central canals, forming osteons Interstitial lamellae are remnants of lamellae left after bone remodeling

Canals within compact bone provide a means for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products
From the periosteum (endosteum) perforating canals carry blood vessels to central canals Canaliculi connect central canals to osteocytes

Fig. 6.5

Bone Anatomy
Individual bones are classified according to their shape
Long bones
Longer than they are wide Most bones of the upper and lower limbs

Short bones
About as wide as they are long Bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals)

Flat bones
Relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved Certain bones of the skull, all the ribs, the breastbone (sternum), and the shoulder blades (scapulae)

Irregular bones
Do not fit into the other three categories Vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones

Bone Anatomy
Structure of Long Bone
Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis Diaphysis
Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity Not to the same extent, but certain bones also contain red marrow

Bone Anatomy
Structure of Long Bone
Epiphyses
Expanded ends of long bones Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses Epiphyseal plate is the site of bone growth in length
Epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line when all of its cartilage is replaced with bone

Bone Anatomy
Bone Membranes
Periosteum: double layer of protective membrane covering the outer surface of bone
Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue, which contains blood vessels and nerves Inner osteogenic layer contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells

Endosteum: delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

Contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells

Fig. 6.6

Bone Anatomy
Structure of Flat, Short, and Irregular Bones
Flat bones contain an interior framework of cancellous bone sandwiched between two layers of compact bone Short and Irregular bones have a composition similar to the ends of long bones

Bone Development
Begins at week 8 of embryo development Intramembranous ossification: bone develops from a fibrous membrane
Some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the diaphyses of the clavicles

Endochondral ossification: bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

Bones of the base of the skull, part of the mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the remaining skeletal system

Bone Development
Intramembranous Ossification
Within the membrane at centers of ossification, osteoblasts produce bone along the membrane fibers to form cancellous bone Beneath the periosteum, osteoblasts lay down compact bone to form the outer surface of the bone Fontanels are areas of membrane that are not ossified at birth
Bones formed by intramembranous ossification are yellow and bones formed by endochondral ossification are blue Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.7

Fig. 6.8

Bone Development
Endochondral Ossification
Uses hyaline cartilage bones as models for bone construction Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification The perichondrium covering the hyaline cartilage bone is infiltrated with blood vessels, converting it to a vascularized periosteum The change in nutrition transforms the underlying osteochondral progenitor cells into osteoblasts Formation of bone collar around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model

Bone Development
Endochondral Ossification cont.
Blood vessels grow into the calcified cartilage, bringing osteoblasts and osteoclasts from the periosteum A primary ossification center forms as osteoblasts lay down bone matrix Medullary cavity forms Appearance of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates

Endochondral Ossification

Fig. 6.9a

Endochondral Ossification Continued

Fig. 6.9b

Bone Growth
Bones increase in size only by appositional growth
Adding of new bone on the surface of older bone or cartilage

Trabeculae grow by appositional growth

Bone Growth
Growth in Bone Length
Bone length increases because of growth at the epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal plate growth involves
Interstitial growth of cartilage Followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage

Epiphyseal plate growth results in an increase in the length of the diaphysis and bony processes Bone growth in length ceases when the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and forms the epiphyseal line

Postnatal Bone Growth

Growth in Long Bones
The epiphyseal plate is organized into four zones
1. Zone of resting cartilage
Cartilage attaches to the epiphysis

2. Zone of proliferation
New cartilage is produced on the epiphyseal side of the plate as the chondrocytes divide and form stacks of cells

3. Zone of hypertrophy
Chondrocytes mature and enlarge

4. Zone of calcification
Matrix is calcified, and chondrocytes die

Ossified bone
The calcified cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone

Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.11

Bone Growth
Growth at Articular Cartilage
Involves the interstitial growth of cartilage followed by appositional bone growth on the cartilage Results in larger epiphyses and an increase in the size of bones that do not have epiphyseal plates

Bone Growth
Growth in Bone Width
Appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum increases the diameter of long bones and the size of other bones Osteoblasts from the periosteum form ridges with grooves between them The ridges grow together, converting the grooves into tunnels filled with concentric lamellae to form osteons Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down circumferential lamellae, which can be remodeled
Fig. 6.12

Bone Growth
Factors Affecting Bone Growth
Genetic factors determine bone shape and size
The expression of genetic factors can be modified

Factors that alter the mineralization process or the production of organic matrix
Deficiencies in vitamin D

Hormones
Growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone stimulate bone growth Estrogen and testosterone cause closure of the epiphyseal plate

Bone Remodeling
Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and allows bone to
Change shape Adjust to stress Repair itself Regulate body calcium levels

Basic multicellular units (BMUs) make tunnels in bone, which are filled with concentric lamellae to form osteons
BMUs are temporary assemblies of osteoclasts and osteoblasts BMU activity renews the entire skeleton every 10 years

Interstitial lamellae are remnants of bone not removed by BMUs

Remodeling of a Long Bone

Fig. 6.13

Bone Fractures (Breaks)

Bone fractures are classified by:
The position of the bone ends after fracture The completeness of the break The orientation of the bone to the long axis Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin

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Bone Repair

Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
1. Hematoma formation
Torn blood vessels hemorrhage A mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at the fracture site Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
2. Callus formation
Granulation tissue (soft callus) forms a few days after the fracture Capillaries grow into the tissue and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris
Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
2. Callus formation cont.
The external callus forms when:
Osteoblasts and fibroblasts migrate to the fracture and begin reconstructing the bone Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that connect broken bone ends Osteoblasts begin forming woven bone Osteoblasts furthest from capillaries secrete an externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that later calcifies

Bone Repair
3. Callus ossification
The fibers and cartilage of the internal and external calluses are ossified to produce woven, cancellous bone Cancellous bone formation in the callus is usually complete 4-6 weeks after the injury
Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair
4. Bone remodeling
Excess material on the bone shaft exterior and in the medullary canal is removed Compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls The remodeling process may take more than a year to complete

Fig. 6.14

Bone Repair

Fig. 6.14

Calcium Homeostasis
Bone is the major storage site for calcium (Ca2+) Two hormones regulate Ca2+ levels in the blood: parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
PTH is the major regulator of blood Ca2+
Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH PTH signals
Osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood Ca2+ absorption from the small intestines Reabsorption of Ca2+ from the urine

Calcitonin
Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposition in bone by decreasing osteoclast activity

Fig. 6.15

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System

With aging, bone matrix is lost and the matrix becomes more brittle Cancellous bone loss results from a thinning and loss of trabeculae Compact bone loss mainly occurs from the inner surface of bones and involves less osteon formation Loss of bone
Increases the risk for fractures Causes deformity Loss of height Pain Stiffness Loss of teeth

Osteoporosis

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