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Standing Waves, Beats,

and Group Velocity


Group velocity: the speed of information

Going faster than light...

Group-velocity dispersion
Superposition again

Standing waves: the
sum of two oppositely
traveling waves
Beats: the sum of
two different
frequencies
Prof. Rick Trebino
Georgia Tech
www.frog.gatech.edu
Superposition allows waves to pass
through each other.
Otherwise they'd get screwed
up while overlapping.
Now well add waves with different
complex exponentials.
It's easy to add waves with the same complex exponentials:
1 2 3
1 2 3
( , ) exp ( ) exp ( ) exp ( )
( ) exp ( )
tot
E x t E i z t E i z t E i k k z t
E E E i
k
z t k
e e e
e
= + +
= + +
where all initial phases are lumped into E
1
, E
2
, and E
3
.


But sometimes the complex exponentials will be different!
3 3 2 2 1 3 1 1 2
( , ) exp ( ) exp ( ) exp ( )
?
tot
E x t E i z t E i z k t E k i z t k e e e = + + +
=
Note
the plus
sign!
~ ~ ~
Adding waves of the same frequency, but
opposite direction, yields a standing wave.
0 0
0
0
( , ) exp ( ) exp ( )
exp( )[exp( ) exp( )]
2 exp( ) cos( )
tot
E z t E i kz t E i kz t
E ikz i t i t
E ikz t
e e
e e
e
= +
= +
=
+
0
( , ) 2 cos( ) cos( )
tot
z t E kz t e = E
Taking the real part of the field complex amplitude:
Standing waves are important inside lasers, where beams bounce
back and forth.
Waves propagating in opposite directionscounter-propagating waves:
(taking E
0
to be real)
~
| |
2
0 0
1
( ) cos ( ) 1 cos(2 )
2
tot
I z I kz I kz = +
A Standing Wave
Nodes
Anti-nodes
The points where
the amplitude is
always zero are
called nodes.
The points where
the amplitude
oscillates
maximally are
called anti-
nodes.
Note that the
nodes and anti-
nodes are each
separated by /2.

z
A Standing Wave: Experiment
3.9 GHz microwaves
Note the node at the mirror at left, where there is a boundary condition
that the electric field = 0.
Mirror
Input beam
The same effect
occurs in lasers.
Reflected beam
But the right mirror means that:
L = an integral number (m) of half
wavelengths:
Standing Waves in a Laser
Mirror Mirror
z
0 L
A laser has a two mirrors, each with the same boundary condition.
0
( , ) 2 sin( ) cos( )
tot
z t E kz t e = E
The left mirror means using sin(kz):
And the possible frequencies are:
v
m
= c/
m
= mc/2L
m
m
/2 = L or
m
= 2L/m
k
m
= 2t/(2L/m) = mt/L
z 0 L
m
| | | | { }
1 2 0
exp ( cos sin exp ( cos sin E E E i t kz kx i t kz kx e u u e u u + = + +
Beams Crossing at an Angle
2
cos
sin
k k z
k x
u
u
=

1
cos

sin
k k z
k x
u
u
=
+
k
2
k
1
u
z
x
| || |
0
exp ( cos ) exp( sin ) exp( sin ) E i t kz ikx ikx e u u u = + +
| |
0
2 exp ( cos ) cos( sin ) E i t kz kx e u u =
0
( , , ) 2 cos( cos ) cos( sin )
tot
E x z t E t kz kx e u u =
| |
2
1
0 0 2
( , ) cos ( sin ) 1 cos(2 sin ) I x t I kx I kx u u = +
Fringe spacing, A:
A = 2t/(2ksinu)
A = /(2sinu)
x
1
k
2
k
Finite-size (laser) beams yield fringes only where the beams overlap.
Laser Beams Crossing at an Angle
Interference fringes Fringe spacing
A = /(2sinu)
Pulsed Waves Crossing at an Angle
Big angle: small fringes.
Small angle: big fringes.
/ (2sin ) u A =
The fringe spacing, A:
As the angle decreases to
zero, the fringes become
larger and larger, until finally, at
u = 0, the intensity pattern
becomes constant.
Large angle:
Small angle:
A = 0.1 mm is about the minimum
fringe spacing you can see:
sin / (2 )
0.5 / 200 1/ 400 rad 0.15 m m
u u
u
~ = A
~ ~ =
very small!
Two Point Sources Emitting Spherical
Waves
Different separations. Note the different node patterns.
When two waves of different frequency
interfere, the result is beats.
0 0 2 1
exp ( ) ( Re{ exp( } ) )
tot
E i E t t i t e e = + E taking E
0
to be real.
2
1 ave
ave
e
e e e
e e
= + A
= A
Adding waves of two different frequencies yields the product of a
rapidly varying cosine (e
ave
) and a slowly varying cosine (Ae).
0 0
0
0
0
( ) Re{ exp ( ) exp ( )}
Re{ exp( )[exp( ) exp( )]}
Re{2 exp( ) cos( )}
2 cos( ) cos( )
ave ave
ave
a
tot
ve
ave
t E i t t E i t t
E i t i t i t
E i t t
E t t
e e
e
e
e
e e
e e
e
e
= + A + A
= A + A
= A
= A
E
0
( ) 2 cos( ) cos( )
ave tot
t E t t e e = A E
1 1 2 2

2 2
ave
e
e
e e e
e
+
= A = and
Let:
When two waves of different frequency
interfere, the result is beats.
Indiv-
idual
waves

Sum


Envel-
ope


Irrad-
iance
time
2t/Ae
In phase Out of phase In phase Out of phase In phase
When two light waves of different frequency
interfere, they also produce beats.
0 2 2
2
0 1 1
1 2
2 2 1 1
0
1
0
( , ) Re{ }

2 2

2 2

( , ) Re{ exp ( ) ex
exp ( )
p
ex ( )
(
p
tot
t
ave
ave
av ot e ave ave
E i k z t
k k
z t
k
z t
E
k
k
i k z
E i z kz t t E i z
t
kz
k k
k
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
= +
+
= A =
+
= A =
= + A A + A
E
E
Let and
Similiarly, and
So:
| |
0
0
0
)}
Re{ exp ( ) exp[ ( )] }
Re{2 cos( )}

exp ( )
exp ( )
cos( ) 2 cos( )
ave
ave ave
ave ave
ave ave
i k z t
i k z
t t
E i kz t i kz t
E kz t
E kz t
t
k z t
e e
e e
e
e
e
e
e
+ A
= A A + A A
= A A
= A A

taking E
0
to be real.
Traveling-Wave Beats
Indiv-
idual
waves

Sum


Envel-
ope


Inten-
sity
In phase Out of phase In phase Out of phase In phase
z
time
In phase Out of phase
Seeing Beats
Its usually very difficult to see optical
beats because they occur on a time
scale thats too fast to detect. This is
why we said earlier that beams of
different colors dont interfere, and we
only see the average intensity.
However, a sum of many
frequencies will yield a
train of well-separated
pulses:
Indiv-
idual
waves

Sum


Irrad-
iance
2t/Ae
max

Pulse separation: 2t/Ae
min

0
cos ( , ) 2 Puls ( ) e ) (
tot ave ave
k z z t E z t t k e e = A A E
Group Velocity
v
g
de /dk
Light-wave beats (continued):

E
tot
(z,t) = 2E
0
cos(k
ave
ze
ave
t) Pulse(AkzAet)

This is a rapidly oscillating wave: [cos(k
ave
ze
ave
t)]

with a slowly varying amplitude: [2E
0
Pulse(AkzAet)]

The phase velocity comes from the rapidly varying part: v = e
ave
/ k
ave


What about the other velocitythe velocity of the pulse amplitude?

Define the group velocity: v
g
Ae /Ak

In general, we define the group velocity as:
carrier wave
amplitude
Group velocity is not equal to phase velocity
if the medium is dispersive (i.e., n varies).
0 1 0 2
1 1 2 2
v
g
c k c k
k n k n k
e A
=
A
Evaluate the group velocity for the two-frequency case:
0 0 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 0
, v v

, v v /
g
g
c c k k
n n n
n k k n
n n c n
|
|

= = = = = =

= = =
If phase velocity
If
where k
1
and k
2
are the k-vector magnitudes in vacuum.
Phase and Group Velocities
Unrealistic
Unrealistic
In vacuum
Most
common
case
Unrealistic
Possible
The group velocity is the velocity of
the envelope or irradiance: the math.
0
( ) ( v ) exp[ ( v )]
g
E t E z t ik z t
|
=
( ) ( v ) exp[ ( v )]
g
E t I z t ik z t
|

And the envelope propagates at the group velocity:
Or, equivalently, the irradiance propagates at the group velocity:
The carrier wave propagates at the phase velocity.
Now, e is the same in or out of the medium, but k = k
0
n, where k
0
is
the k-vector in vacuum, and n is what depends on the medium.
So it's easier to think of e as the independent variable:
Calculating the Group Velocity, v
g
de /dk
| |
1
v /
g
dk de

v v / 1
g
dn
n d
|
e
e
| |
= +
|
\ .
So the group velocity equals the phase velocity when dn/de = 0, such
as in vacuum. Otherwise, since n increases with e, dn/de > 0, and:
v
g
< v
|

Using k = e n(e) / c
0
, calculate: dk /de = ( n + e dn/de ) / c
0


v
g
= c
0
/ ( n + e dn/de) = (c
0
/n) / (1 + e /n dn/de )

Finally:
0
0
2
0 0 0 0
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
0
0
0

2 2
2 /
(2 / ) 2
v / 1
2
v / 1
g
g
d dn dn
d d d
d c c
c
d c c
c dn
n n d
c
c
n

e e
t t
t e
e e t t
e
e
t
=

= = = =
| | (
= +
|
(
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
Use the chain rule:
Now, , so:
Recalling that :
we have:
2
0
0 0 0
2
dn
n d c

(

| |

(
|
`
|
(

\ .
)

or :
Calculating Group Velocity vs. Wavelength
We more often think of the refractive index in terms of wavelength, so
let's write the group velocity in terms of the vacuum wavelength
0
.
0 0
0 0
0 0
v / 1 /
g
c dn dn
c n
n n d d



| | | |
| |
= =
| |
|
\ .
\ . \ .
The group velocity is less than the phase
velocity in non-absorbing regions.
v
g
= c
0
/ (n + e dn/de)
In regions of normal dispersion, dn/de is positive.
So v
g
< v
|
for these frequencies.
e
2
e
3
e
1
R
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
,

n

e
Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray
1
0
Normal
dispersion
Regions of Anomalous dispersion
Normal
dispersion
Normal
dispersion
The group velocity can exceed c
0
when
dispersion is anomalous.
v
g
= c
0
/ (n + e dn/de)
dn/de is negative where dispersion is anomalous dispersion (near a
resonance). So v
g
can exceed v
|
or even c
0
for these frequencies!
Unfortunately, absorption is strong in these regions. Also, dn/de is only
steep when the resonance is narrow, so only a narrow range of
frequencies has v
g
> c
0
. Frequencies outside this range have v
g
< c
0
.

Pulses of light (which are broadband) therefore break up into a mess.
e
2
e
3
e
1
R
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

i
n
d
e
x
,

n

e
Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray
1
0
Normal
dispersion
Regions of Anomalous dispersion
Normal
dispersion
Normal
dispersion
Beating the Speed of Light
To exceed c
0
, we need a region of negative dn/de over a fairly large
range of frequencies. And the slope should not vary muchto avoid
pulse break-up. And absorption should be minimal.
One trick is to excite the medium in advance with a laser pulse, which
creates gain (instead of absorption), which inverts the curve.
Then two nearby resonances have a region in between with minimal
absorption and near-linear negative slope:
2
Prisms, Phase Velocity, and Group Velocity
Phase-fronts are always perpendicular to the propagation direction.
Because the group velocity is usually less than phase velocity, the
pulse front will lag behind the phase-fronts in the thicker part of the
prism, causing the pulse to tilt when light traverses a prism.
Prism
Pulse
Pulse-front tilt
Angular dispersion always causes pulse-front tilt.
Phase-fronts
Pulse-front
Group velocity dispersion (GVD) is the
variation of group velocity with frequency.
Because n(e) is curved, dn/de varies with frequency, and so will
the group velocity. This is GVD. GVD lengthens a pulse in time.
The more material, the longer the pulse.
Because short pulses have large ranges of frequencies, GVD is a
bigger issue for them than for nearly monochromatic light.
v
g
(blue) <v
g
(red)
Short
pulse
Not so
short
pulse
A chirped pulse
Group-velocity dispersion is undesirable
in telecommunications systems.
Train of input telecom pulses
Train of output telecom pulses
Many km of fiber
GVD turns short pulses into
long ones.
Fiber must be very
carefully designed to
compensate for GVD.
Pulse Compressor
All materials have positive GVD in the visible and near-IR.
But this device has negative GVD and hence can compensate for
propagation through materials.
Its routine to stretch and then compress short light pulses by factors
of >1000.
Adjusting the prism maintains alignment.
Any prism in the compressor can be translated perpendicular to the
beam path to add glass and reduce the magnitude of negative GVD.
Remarkably, this does
not misalign the beam.
Output beam Input beam
The output path is
independent of prism
position.

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