Bringing Historic Maps into GIS

Patrick Florance Digital Cartographer Harvard Map Collection Harvard University

Purpose
Demonstrate how historical maps can be used within a GIS. Illustrate the techniques used to bring historical maps into GIS Show types of maps that are useful to bring into GIS Convey research conducted at the Harvard Map Collection

GIS
A geographic information system (GIS) is a configuration of computer hardware, software, and personnel specifically designed for the acquisition, maintenance, and use of geographically referenced data.

Modification of Dana Tomlins definition Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling (1990)

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Use historic maps within GIS as a tool for understanding the spatial relationships of past phenomena
Deforestation Shoreline change Socio-economic characteristics of a state or a neighborhood Place-names Railroads and transportation networks Disease

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Context: What exists within ones study area at a given point(s) in time?
Overlay modern GIS data over historic maps Early 20th century USGS topographic map of central Mass.

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Context: What exists within ones study area at a given point(s) in time?
Overlay modern GIS data over historic maps Early 20th century USGS topographic map of central Mass. Overlay modern Quabbin Reservoir in semi-transparent blue

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Context: What exists within ones study area at a given point(s) in time?
Close up of northern Quabbin over early USGS topographic map. Features flooded: Towns, roads, railroads, etc.

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Feature Extraction (heads-up digitizing) and encoding
Vectorize: discrete data made up of ordered lists of points and represented by points, lines, and polygons Trace features and encode those graphics with information Surface of the earth Anthropogenic features
Places, place-names, roads, railways, trails, buildings, bridges, etc.

Natural features
Rivers, lakes, shoreline, elevation, etc.

Abstract/Administrative geography Country, state/province, municipal, parcel/property boundaries, census tracts, etc.

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Feature Extraction (vectorization)
1898 USGS topographic map of Portland, Maine

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Feature Extraction (vectorization)
1898 USGS topographic map of Portland, Maine Built area extracted (vectorized) in red. Perhaps trace roads, railroads, shoreline, contours, etc. Note edge.

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Resource/Research Management Tool
More and more researchers using spreadsheets to manage their research to collect information about places and source material Think of GIS as sort of a spatial spreadsheet or database, which can be used to join that information to spatial representations

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Analysis
Simple
Finding inns that are located within 5 miles of towns with a population over 10,000 in southern France around 1910.

More complex
Archaeological predictive modeling Spatial analysis techniques to model fire density or disease patterns

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Analysis
Interpolated fire density of Constantinople, 1660.

Why bring historic maps into GIS?

Graphic presentations or visualization
Make maps, charts, graphs, etc. Very powerful and useful See David Rumsey Example

Historic Map as a GIS Data Source

Historic maps are made for communicating, not for serving as a basemap/source data for a modern GIS. Positional accuracy: features often moved slightly for clarity (i.e., clustered places, roads along rivers, etc.) Scale distortion Edge-matching Insets Paper streets 1890 map vs. 1990 map

Data Conversion/Development Process

Convert maps to digital form Georeference the digital maps: assign them meaningful spatial coordinates Feature extraction and data modeling ($$)
Generally around 80% of project cost Heavy overhead before one gets results, which is one of reasons why so many GIS fail.

Convert Printed Map to Digital Image

Digital Image (Raster) is composed of a grid of pixels

1898 U.S. railroad map

Convert Printed Map to Digital Image Equipment

Large-format scanner
Expensive Scarce

Overhead digital photography Be careful using photocopies

Distortion along edges

Convert Printed Map to Digital Image Resolution

Resolution can be expressed as the number of pixels per inch (PPI) Different from spatial resolution of remotely sensed imagery, which is a measure of the smallest object that can be resolved by the sensor or the dimension on the ground represented by each pixel (i.e., 30 meters)

Convert Printed Map to Digital Image Resolution (Cont.)

Generally between 150 - 600 ppi, average 200 - 300 ppi Determine resolution that captures the smallest significant feature Use consistent resolution if working with a map series Capture uncompressed as TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) Consider using image compression for working file If map is in grayscale, capture it in grayscale color model reduce file size If map repository, consider capturing very high quality for archiving & resampling to lower resolution for GIS work

Georeference the Digital Image/Map

Georeferencing converts a digital image (raster dataset) from a nonreal-world coordinate system (image space) to a realworld coordinate system such as latitude and longitude. Makes it line up with other GIS data. Allows the digital map image to be viewed with other GIS data.

Georeferencing Process
Need to know locations of at least 3 recognizable features Use more than 3 Locations used to create control points Spread out throughout the map

1898 U.S. railroad map

Georeferencing Process
Need to know locations of at least 3 recognizable features Use more than 3 Locations used to create control points Spread out throughout the map Link real-world coordinates to the control points Links used to transform the map image to real-world coordinates
Lat/Long

Lat/Long

Lat/Long

Georeferencing: Transformation
Transformation adjusts the digital map to make it fit in this real-world coordinate system Affine Transformation - most common
Scale Skew Rotation Shift (Translation)

Affine Transformation: Scale

Changes the image scale by expanding or reducing

Affine Transformation: Skew

Before

After

X Y

Affine Transformation: Rotation

Rotates x and y axes so that the image is correctly oriented

Before

After

X Y

Affine Transformation: Shift (Translation)

X and Y origin are shifted

Before

After
X Y

Georeferencing: Transformation Complete

1898 railroad map with modern vector shoreline overlaid

Software creates associated files that contain the coordinate information (i.e., .tfw) Digital map can then integrated with other GIS data

Root Mean Square (RMS) error

Root Mean Square (RMS) error
Describes the deviation between the control points in the output image and the values calculated by the transformation A measure of the accuracy of the control points In general, lower number the better, with 0 being perfect Record RMS error Save control points

Georeferencing Techniques for Historic Maps

Use existing coordinates or tics Link features on map to features within GIS datasets that have known real-world coordinates. Global Positioning System (GPS)

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Over 134 types of features: towns, municipal boundaries, road types, railways, hydrology, rice fields, pasture land, post offices, churches, castles, inns, etc.

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy Topographic Series, Scale: 1:75,000; Date: 1874-1912

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Topographic map misaligned with modern GIS municipal boundaries (red)

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Step 1: map research
Map projection: polyhedric projection (antiquated) Coordinate system: Bessel 1841 spheroid
Spheroid: estimated shape of the earth as a sphere

Prime meridian: Ferro Metadata is often located on the topographic map itself
However, not in this case

Significant role for the historian

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Step 2: Create a point layer
From geographic coordinates of the 4 corners Based on the historic coordinate system (Bessel 1841) and prime meridian (Ferro)

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Step 3: Project points into the historic map projection
Polyhedric antiquated Used a polyconic

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Step 4: Link tic marks on the map to the projected corner points.

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Step 5: Transform the map
Georeferenced topo with modern GIS municipal boundaries and rivers overlaid

Use Existing Coordinates or Tics to Reference the Map in Real-World Coordinates

Close up: modern municipal boundaries (gemeinden) overlaid on topo
Disparate datasets never match up perfectly Off by around 300-400 feet Detail on map: churches, road types, pastures, etc.

Issue: study area falls on edge of a topo sheet

Area Obscured by Overlap

Mosaic: Match Adjoining Map Sheets

Image processing software Adobe Photoshop ERDAS Imagine ArcGIS Spatial Analyst Time consuming

Other Useful Maps with Coordinate Systems

Topographic series
USGS 1890s 1950s: 1:62500 England & Wales: 1805-1874, 1:63,360 German Karte des Deutschen Reiches: 1862-1907; 1:100,000 China Ministry of National Defense Land Survey: 1901-1947; 1:100,000 Survey of India: 1866-1910; 1:253,440.

Nautical charts
Shorelines, soundings, etc.

World and regional maps

Historic places, national and provincial boundaries, transportation networks, etc.

Globes

Georeferencing Techniques for Historic Maps

Use existing coordinates or tics Link features on map to features within GIS datasets that have known real-world coordinates Global Positioning System (GPS)

Feature Linking
Use control points to link features on the map to features within a GIS dataset that have known real-world coordinates

2001 MassGIS Digital Orthophoto

1797 Street Map of Boston

Feature Linking Steps

Acquire GIS reference dataset to link the map to
Should be of equal or slightly better scale

Map research
Map projection, coordinate system/datum Identify additional map sources for reference

Establish reference points to use as links

Cultural features such as street intersections, bridges, buildings, landmarks, monuments, etc. Try to avoid using natural features such as shoreline, rivers, lakes, etc. because they fluctuate greatly Check dates of features on the map used as links

Project GIS data to match the projection of the map

Feature Linking Steps (Cont.)

If georeferencing multiple maps, start with the most current map and work backwards in time Provides more features to link to

1797

1835

1895
2001

Feature Linking Steps (Cont.)

Add at least 3 control points spread out throughout the map Transform the map

2001 MassGIS Digital Orthophoto

1797 Street Map of Boston

City-Wide Maps: Boston

Useful for tracing the historical development of: Streets Districts & wards Shoreline Town boundaries Monuments Churches Schools Significant buildings

1797 - 2001 shoreline change

City-Wide Maps: Cambridge Full View

1865 street map of the City of Cambridge, MA

City-Wide Maps: Cambridge Detail

Detail of 1865 street map of the City of Cambridge, MA

City-Wide Maps Georeferenced

Georeferenced 1865 map of Cambridge GIS reference data
City of Cambrige GIS street centerline (shown in red)

Integrate Additional GIS Data with Georeferenced Map

Georeferenced 1865 map of Cambridge overlaid with 3D buildings

Integrate Additional GIS Data with Georeferenced Map

Georeferenced 1865 map of Cambridge overlaid with 3D buildings and modern shoreline of the Charles River

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases

Publishers: Bromley, Beers, Hopkins, Sanborn, Ordnance Survey (OS) Begin around mid 19th century, early 1800s for OS. Scale of 1:5000 or better Wealth of information
Property: boundaries, owners, addresses Building: footprints, composition, heights, stories, use, roof types Other info: streets, fire hydrants, etc.

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases Detail

Detail of 1867 Boston Sanborn

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases Full View

Issues
Bound editions make digital conversion difficult Insets Mosaicing or edgematching

Ungeoreferenced 1867 Boston Sanborn

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases Georeferenced Mosaic Full View

Georeferenced 1867 Boston Sanborn with inset mosaiced

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases Georeferenced Mosaic Detail

Georeferenced 1867 Boston Sanborn with inset mosaiced

Urban/Fire Insurance Atlases Integration of Modern and Historical Data

Georeferenced 1867 Boston Sanborn with modern buildings overlaid in red

Reconstructing the New Orleans Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878

Andrew Curtis & John Anderson, LSU Example of using historic urban atlases and city-wide maps Textual descriptions Automated data conversion Historical geocoding of death residences Spatial Analysis

Other Useful Types of Maps

Census Maps
Most common request Enormous amount of vectorization work Scarce

Minor Civil Divisions, NY, 1930.

Other Useful Types of Maps

Aerial Photography
Vertical photography from mid 1930s to present; developed during WWII 1952 Great for context Distortion/displacement: scale, relief, and tilt Use building footprints not rooftops, street intersections, 2001 etc. for control points

Boston 1952 USDA aerial photo over 2001 MassGIS color orthophoto

Other Useful Types of Maps

Map to Map Georeferencing
Compare one map to another Dont need real-world coordinates

Map of Paris, 1832

Map of Paris, 1865

Georeferencing Techniques for Historic Maps

Use existing coordinates or tics Link features on map to features within GIS datasets that have known real-world Global Positioning System (GPS)

Global Positioning System (GPS)

A system of satellites & receiving devices used to compute positions on the Earth

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Collect ground control points for significant features on the map: building corners, street intersections, monuments, site remains, etc.

Lat/Long

1815 map of early 16th century waterworks in Istanbul

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Useful for georeferencing when one does not have any reference data or coordinates on the map Primarily used for city-scale or larger scale maps, not for maps of very large regions

Georeferencing Techniques and Historic Maps for GIS

Use existing coordinates or tics Link features on map to features within GIS datasets that have known real-world coordinates Global Positioning System (GPS)

Rubber Sheeting
Expression is used many different ways

Rubber Sheeting
The process of transforming an image from one x,y coordinate system to another
ArcInfo manual Includes linear (Affine) transformations

Rubber Sheeting
Higher order transformations (warping)
2nd order or higher (nonlinear) that transform through curves Need minimum of 6 control points Maps of large areas and unknown projection Aerial photography

Rubber Sheeting
Piecewise Transformation
Uses different transformations in different parts of the map Used when map is badly warped and data matching is essential Used for edge-matching Generally use a full transformation first How does one record this in the metadata? Sometimes easier with vector data

Rubber Sheeting - What to Do?

Start with a first-order (Affine) transformation Research projection of your map Find good control points Understand there is a fuzziness of inaccuracy in all maps and GIS data. Then move on to higher order transformations and then piecewise transformations

Getting Started
Source Materials
Historic & contemporary maps
Map & government document libraries Special collections Archives Government agencies Commercial vendors

GIS data
Government agencies Universities Libraries Commercial vendors

Getting Started
Software
Image processing software
Adobe Photoshop, Photoshop Elements

GIS software
ArcView, ArcGIS, IDRISI, AutoCAD, etc.

Advanced spatial image processing software (optional)

ArcInfo Grid, Spatial Analyst, ERDAS Imagine, etc.

Advanced wavelet image compression software (optional)

If want to disseminate georeferenced maps ECW, MrSID, JPEG2000

Getting Started
Hardware
Computer with minimum 512 megs RAM For large processing 1-2 gigs of RAM Access large format scanner or overhead digital photography

Getting Started
People
GIS skills
Usually takes about 1 to 2 weeks to get up to speed

Do you need to bring your historic map into a GIS?

Maybe NOT
Making a map of an historical period. Using the map as reference to encode preexisting GIS data. Digitizing tablet
to extract/trace features.

General Future of Bringing Historic Maps into GIS

History of cartography community needs more research concerning technical aspects (i.e., map projections and coordinate systems), mentioned by David Woodward at ICHC 2003 GIS community needs to develop more historic projections, coordinate systems, and transformations. Development of geo-historical datasets that can be widely used
must include metadata

Accuracy assessment Outreach concerning the use and significance of historical materials for GIS

Future of Bringing Historic Maps into GIS at the Harvard Map Collection
Harvard Library Digital Initiative
Georeferencing and disseminating maps online through the Harvard Geospatial Library (HGL) as JPEG2000 Civil War collection Early Africa Chinese topos Historic USGS topos

Experimenting with automated raster to vector data conversion Conducting workshops and developing instructional materials concerning GIS and the humanities/social sciences

Useful Internet Sites

The Harvard Map Collection
http://www.hcl.harvard.edu/maps/

Harvard Geospatial Library

http://hgl.harvard.edu

David Rumsey Map Collection

http://www.davidrumsey.com/index.html

The Boston Atlas

http://www.mapjunction.com/places/Boston_BRA

Comments and Questions?