Parts of Speech

MS. MA. ANNA CORINA G. KAGAOAN

Instructor English Cluster School of Arts and Sciences Lyceum of the Philippines - Laguna

Preface
This chapter provides application on the knowledge of correct syntax to comprehend written text, to read fluently in English and to identify facts and evidences in order to interpret and to analyze texts. Students will understand and apply knowledge of English grammar, spelling and conventions to improve their writing and speaking skills. Numerous exercises were included in this module to reinforce learning.

What is Grammar?
Grammar means the study of the classes of words, their inflections (changes in form to distinguish case, gender, tense, etc.), and functions in a sentence.
It has two important aspects: a.) Parts of Speech b.) Correct Usage

The Parts of Speech

From learning the parts of speech, we begin to understand the use or functions of words and how these words are joined together to make a meaningful sentence. Eight main parts of speech in English : a.) Noun e.) Adverb b.) Pronoun
c.) Verb d.) Adjective

f.) Preposition
g.) Conjunction h.) Interjection

The Parts of Speech

A sentence is always composed of a

SUBJECT

and a

PREDICATE

She

works.

Wow! The lovely lady at her desk works and plays hard.
interj art adj noun prep pron noun verb conj verb adv

What is a NOUN?
A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. person - Socrates, actor, Mr. Uy place - Scotland, forest, James St. The category thing contains subcategories. visible things ideas actions conditions qualities - duck, daffodil, desk - capitalism, Christianity, 1944 - competition, exercise, labor - joy, health, happiness - compassion, intelligence, drive

Where are the nouns?

Heres an exercise. Look for the nouns in the following nursery rhymes.

Jack and Jill went up the hill To fetch a pail of water Jack fell down and broke his crown And Jill came tumbling after.

CHECK

CHECK

Twinkle, twinkle little star How I wonder what you are Up above the world so high Like a diamond in the sky

Number of Nouns
Is it SINGULAR or PLURAL?

A Singular Noun names one person, place, or thing. A Plural Noun names more than one person, place, or thing. Most plural nouns are formed by adding -s or -es to their singular forms. Some nouns, however, form their plurals in other ways and must be memorized.
Examples: meal - meals knife - knives brush - brushes alumnus - alumni
Notice that the examples of plurals in the right column are formed in unusual ways.

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Most nouns add the letter s to the singular to form the plural.

1.

lamp dance chief

lamps dances chiefs

college manager dynamo

colleges managers dynamos

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x, or z form the plural by adding es. The plural adds another syllable in the pronunciation.

2.

dress match tax

dresses matches taxes

couch waltz loss

couches waltzes losses

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel add s. Musical terms ending in o add s.

3.

patio rodeo

patios rodeos

piano alto

pianos altos

Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add s. Others add es. Some form the plural either way.
Add s
Add es Add s or es

kimono
Negro cargo motto

kimonos
Negroes cargos mottos

zero
hero

zeros
heroes cargoes mottoes

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es.

4.

party city lady

parties cities ladies

country enemy berry

countries enemies berries

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, usually add s. In many cases, the vowel before the final y is e.

5.

boy alley key

boys alleys keys

day journey valley

days journeys valleys

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Some nouns ending in f or fe change the f or the fe to v and add es. Some nouns ending in f have two plurals.

6.

Change to ves wife thief half wives thieves halves

Add s or change to ves scarf wharf hoof scarfs wharfs hoofs scarves wharves hooves

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO.

7.

Some nouns form their plural by a change in the word.

man foot tooth men feet teeth mouse goose louse mice geese lice

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.

8.

sheep Chinese fish

sheep Chinese fish

species series salmon

species series salmon (or salmons)

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. The plural of compound nouns are generally formed by adding s to the principal word in the compound.

9.

mother-in-law board of education attorney general court-martial

mothers-in-law boards of education attorneys general or attorney generals courts-martial

Sometimes both parts of the compound are made plural.

man servant woman doctor menservants women doctors

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. 9 continued Sometimes an s or es is added to the end of the compound. In that case, there is no important word in the compound.
forget-me-not toothbrush forget-me-nots toothbrushes

Compounds ending in ful are made plural by adding s to the end of the compound. This rule applies when the same container is filled a number of times.
spoonful bucketful spoonfuls bucketfuls handful cupful handfuls cupfuls

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. The plurals of proper nouns are formed by adding s or es.

10.

There are three Ruths in the class. The two Burnses left the hall. The Joneses and the Smiths attended.

The spelling of proper names must not be changed. If we followed the rule for words ending in y in the case of Mary, we would change the y to i and add es. The name would then be changed to Maries. The correct plural for Mary is Marys.

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO.

11.

Titles are made plural in several ways.

Miss Mr. Mrs. Misses Messrs (has no plural)

Madam

Mesdames (sometimes used for the plural of Mrs.)

Either form of the following plurals is correct.

The Misses Thomas or the Miss Thomases The Messrs Churchill or the Mr. Churchills

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Words taken from foreign languages usually retain their foreign plurals. Some of these words are used so commonly that they have acquired an English plural.

12.

Foreign Word alumna alumnus analysis appendix bacterium basis cactus

Foreign Plural alumnae alumni analyses appendices bacteria bases cacti

English Plural appendixes cactuses

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Words taken from foreign languages usually retain their foreign plurals. Some of these words are used so commonly that they have acquired an English plural.

12.

Foreign Word crisis criterion curriculum datum formula gymnasium hypothesis

Foreign Plural crises criteria curricula data formulae gymnasia hypotheses

English Plural criterions curriculums formulas gymnasiums

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. Words taken from foreign languages usually retain their foreign plurals. Some of these words are used so commonly that they have acquired an English plural.

12.

Foreign Word index madam medium memorandum parenthesis phenomenon radius

Foreign Plural indices mesdames media memoranda parentheses phenomena radii

English Plural indexes mediums memorandums radiuses

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. The plural of numbers, letters, signs, and symbols is formed by adding the apostrophe and s.

13.

Your 2s look like your 3s. You use too many ands in your writing. or You use too many ands in your writing. You must always cross your ts. He received three As and two Bs last semester.

Number of Nouns
Methods of forming the plural of nouns:
RULE NO. The following nouns are used only in the plural. You may find some of them used in the singular, but the general practice is to regard them as plural.

14.

trousers

shears

contents

pants
scissors billiards

pliers
alms nuptials

riches
scales (weighing) remains

clothes

gallows

victuals

Classification of Nouns
Is it CONCRETE or ABSTRACT?

A Concrete Noun names something you can see, touch, taste, hear, or smell. An Abstract Noun names something you cannot perceive through any of your five senses.
Concrete Nouns mother fabric chocolate music perfume Abstract Nouns hope improvement evil desperation cooperation

Kinds of Nouns
Is it PROPER or COMMON? A Proper Noun is the name of a specific person, place or thing. A Common Noun is the name used for any unspecified member of a class of persons, places, things, qualities or concepts.
Lincoln attracts many visitors to New York City. England occupies the largest, southern part of the country.
C P C P C P

Is it PROPER or COMMON?
Try this exercise. Tell whether the given noun is proper or common.
McDonalds
food deliverer San Pablo Shopping Mall franchise Chicken McNuggets

lunch
crew janitor BigMac Management Trainee Coca-Cola
CHECK

Is it PROPER or COMMON?

PROPER McDonalds BigMac

COMMON lunch crew

Management Trainee
San Pablo Shopping Mall Coca-Cola Chicken McNuggets

janitor
food deliverer franchise

Notice that all the Proper Nouns starts with a capital letter.

Other Kinds of Nouns

A Collective Noun may represent a group or class considered as a unit, and is considered as singular.

Examples: 1. The army is advancing slowly. 2. The band has played well.
On the other hand, it may also represent a group or class considered as individuals. In this case, the collective noun is considered as plural. Examples: 1. The audience are leaving their seats now. 2. The committee disagree with the stand.

Other Kinds of Nouns

Some of the most common collective nouns are: audience crowd group couple majority committee herd family flock army team jury class band A Compound noun is a noun made up of two words. Examples: Separated Hyphenated bubble bath, station wagon, life preserver, coffee table daughter-in-law, hand-me-down, jack-o-lantern, aide-de-camp shipwreck, grandstand, schoolwork, dreamland

Combined

Gender of Nouns
Gender means the classification of nouns according to distinctions in sex.

There are four genders: 1. Masculine gender denotes the male sex. ex. father, boy, prince 2. Feminine gender denotes the female sex. ex. mother, girl, princess 3. Common gender denotes either sex. ex. child, adult, cousin 4. Neuter gender denotes the absence of sex. ex. table, book, dress

Gender of Nouns
Special forms to show gender: Masculine
uncle bull waiter alumnus emperor host peacock male monk actor

Feminine
aunt cow waitress alumna empress hostess peahen female nun actress

Masculine
bachelor executor baron he lad man rooster master brother drake

Feminine
spinster executrix baroness she lass woman hen mistress sister duck

Gender of Nouns
Special forms to show gender: Masculine
god aviator hero count (title) gander sir ram lion duke nephew

Feminine
goddess aviatrix heroine countess goose madam ewe lioness duchess niece

Masculine
prince fianc stallion father him widower husband buck (stag) landlord son

Feminine
princess fiance mare mother her widow wife doe landlady daughter

Functions of Nouns
subject
: The car runs well.

direct object
complement

: I bought a book.
: Mary was the president.

object of the prep. : He walked to the store.

indirect object
possession

: Sam mailed Joan a letter. : The womans daughter left early.

What is a Pronoun?
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun and its modifiers or another pronoun. The element replaced is called the antecedent of the pronoun. Example:
ANTECEDENT

The voters in our town voted against the bond issue.

They vowed to vote no additional funds.

PRONOUN

Look for the pronouns!

Heres another exercise. Identify the pronoun and point to its corresponding antecedent. 1.The little boy blew his horn. 2.Corinne loves to play with her doll. 3.The driver helped himself in unloading the baggage.
CHECK CHECK

CHECK

4.The teachers fought for their rights.

5.Considering he was qualified, Lewis immediately applied for the job.

CHECK CHECK

Types of Pronouns
Personal - I, you, he, we, they, one - it, they Impersonal - who, which, that, whoever, whichever Relative Demonstrative - this, that, these, those Interrogative - who, which, what, whoever, whatever - myself, yourself, himself, herself Reflexive - myself, yourself, himself, herself Intensive - each other, one other Reciprocal - each, either, any, anyone, someone Indefinite

Personal and Impersonal Pronouns

PERSONAL PRONOUNS - the person speaking - the person spoken to - the person spoken about
I you

they

IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS - refer to everything but people

it

they

Personal and Impersonal Pronouns

Subjective First-Person Pronouns Singular Plural Possessive Objective

I We

mine ours

ours us

Second-Person Pronouns Singular you Plural you Third-Person Pronouns Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter Any gender Plural

yours yours

you you

you he she it one they

yours his hers its ones theirs

you him her it one them

Pronoun Choices:
Select the word that would correctly complete the sentence. 1. Last week, Raoul said that (we, us), the graduating students need not attend the seminar. 2. According to Paolo and (he, him), this is the best call center course youll ever take. 3. The manager doesnt expect anyone of (they, them) to show up on the first day of work.
CHECK

CHECK

CHECK

Reflexive Pronouns
- used when the action of the verb is directed towards its subject.
- How is it formed? my your him + SELF her it one Examples: our your + SELVES them

He almost always cut himself while shaving. We fail ourselves when we fail others.

Intensive Pronouns
- used as appositives to strengthen the subject of the verb. They have the same forms as reflexive pronouns.
Examples: You yourself will have to take full responsibility of your actions. You will have to take responsibility yourself.

The French themselves are abusing their language.

The French are abusing their language themselves.

Is it Reflexive or Intensive?
Encircle the pronoun if it is REFLEXIVE and underline it if INTENSIVE.
1. Ask yourself if you are to blame. 2. The lion found itself caught in the trap. 3. I myself am not satisfied with the output. 4. We ourselves are content with the current situation. 5. Shirley supported herself by teaching taekwondo.
CHECK CHECK CHECK

CHECK

CHECK

Demonstrative Pronouns
- the principal demonstrative pronouns are: this that these those

- The demonstrative pronouns according to number and case are the following:
Subjective this that these those Possessive of this of that of these of those Objective this that these those

Other Demonstrative Pronouns

- former, latter, other, such, so, same - and the ordinal numbers: first, second, third, etc. Examples: These are the things I am telling you since then. The prime advantages of this are economy and quality. Select among those which you prefer most. The same is true with the submitted projects. The third was my option.

Relative Pronouns
- they begin a subordinate clause and connect it to another idea in the sentence. The man who saw tomorrow is a story of predictions by Michael Nostradamus. The article of which you spoke gained the distinguished Nobel prize. Im sorry but you cannot borrow that!
Subjective who that which Possessive whose of that of which, whose Objective whom that which, whom

More Relative Pronouns

whoever whomever whichever whatever

Whoever among you have seen my cell phone, please return it to me immediately. Give the award to whomever deserves it. Whichever you choose will be wholeheartedly given to you. Whatever you do, do it with utmost sincerity.

Relative Exercises
Select the proper relative pronoun.
1. (Who, Whom) do you think is responsible?
(Do you think he is responsible?)
CHECK

2. (Who, Whom) shall we ask to the party?

(Shall we ask him to the party?)

CHECK CHECK

3. Give the box to (whoever, whomever) you please.

(Give the box to him.)

4. Give the box to (whoever, whomever) seems to want it most.

(He seems to want it most.)

CHECK

5. (Whoever, Whomever) shows up first will win the prize.

(He shows up first.)

CHECK

Interrogative Pronouns
- used in asking a question - principal interrogative pronouns are: who, which and what
Who was the lead performer in the concert last night? Whose did you select for the contest? Whom did you ask for permission to?
Subjective who which what Possessive whose of which of what Objective whom which what

Indefinite Pronouns
- constitute a large number of imprecise words that can function as a pronoun.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS Singular Plural Singular or Plural another much both all anybody neither few any anyone nobody many more anything no one others most each nothing several none either one some everybody other everyone somebody everything someone little something

Verbs
- the word or words that describe the action or state of being of the subject of a sentence or clause. - examples:
Mrs. Carter loves her son. Politicians campaign actively for election. They feel well this morning. Things are not what they seem. The artist have finished his paintings early.

Main Kinds of Verbs

1. ACTION VERBS - verbs that tell what action someone is performing - they may show mental as well as visible actions
Visible Action : The flag flutters in the breeze. We picked two bushels of apples. The ship sailed last Wednesday for France. All artists are working on their design concepts. Mental Action : Ann remembers you. He thinks you are funny. Mr. Carter loves his son. Things are not just what they seem. They feel well this morning.

Main Kinds of Verbs

2. COPULATIVE (LINKING) VERBS - links a subject with its complement. The complement is either a predicate noun or predicate adjective. A copulative verb does not take an object and they do not show action. - most common copulative verbs: be seem appear become taste feel act sound grow look remain smell stay turn

(Note: Some of these copulative verbs may also be used transitively.)

Main Kinds of Verbs

2. COPULATIVE (LINKING) VERBS am are is was were

The Forms of Be am being can be have been are being could be has been is being may be had been was being might be could have been were being must be may have been shall be might have been should be must have been will be shall have been would be will have been would have been

Main Kinds of Verbs

2. COPULATIVE (LINKING) VERBS

Other Linking Verbs

appear become look remain sound stay feel taste seem grow smell turn

Some of these verbs may also act as action verbs. To determine this, insert am, are, or is in place of the verb. If the replacement makes sense, then it acts as a linking verb.

Linking verb : The grass felt damp. (The grass is damp) Action verb : The Hikers felt a sudden chill.
Linking verb : The milk turned sour. (The milk is sour.) Action verb : The runners turned the corner.

Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs

- used with other verbs to form the tenses, voices and moods of those verbs. - most common auxiliary verbs are: do, does and did; has, have and had. - other forms of the verb be are: can, may, will, shall, must, ought, might, could, should, and would. I may go to the movies.
(The auxiliary verb may indicates a possibility of future action.)

I shall go to the movies.

(The auxiliary verb shall indicates an intention to undertake future action.)

I will go to the movies.

(The auxiliary verb will indicates firm intention to undertake future action.)

Shall and Will

Shall is used in the first person (I, we) in asking questions: - Shall I leave money for you? - Shall we depart now? Will is used in the second and third persons (you, he, she, it, they) in asking question: - Will you be able to find your way? - Will she have enough time to finish her thesis? - Will it be the only cat in the house? - Will they buy all the food necessary for the week?

Shall and Will

Shall is used for all persons for emphatic statements: - I shall do no such thing. - You shall not be permitted to return. - They shall not pass.
Shall is used in the first person to express further action or expectation: - I shall be seeing her tomorrow. - We shall probably meet you at the museum. Will is used in the second and third persons to express future actions or expectations: - You will be with us this evening as usual, I expect. - They will certainly find their way easily.

Should and Would

Should is used to express an obligation or condition: - I should repair the hole I made in the fabric without charge. (Obligation) - You should pay more attention to all your studies. (Obligation) - They should clean the entire apartment thoroughly before moving. (Obligation) - If we should leave them penniless, they may actually starve. (Condition) - If you should disregard all their requests, they will no longer trust you. (Condition) - If they should find no merit in the application, his fellowship will be denied. (Condition)

Should and Would

Would is used to express a wish or customary action: - Would that I had spent more time with my mother. (Wish) - Would that you made decisions more carefully. (Wish) - Would that he were still with us now. (Wish) - We would walk together every day after I came home from work. (Customary action) - You would always remember to call on my birthday. (Customary action) - They would decline every invitation that did not include at least one meal. (Customary action)

Location of Adjectives
- Usually, an adjective precedes a noun. Sometimes, however, the adjective is located after the noun it modifies. The bicycle looked new.

Articles
- The three most common adjectives are the articles a, an, and the. A and an are the indefinite articles; they refer to anyone of a class of nouns. The, the definite article, refers to a specific noun.
Indefinite a contest an opportunity the winner

Definite

Nouns Used as Adjectives

- A noun functions as an adjective when it modifies another noun and answers the question: What kind? or the question Which one? Nouns Used as Adjectives potato potato soup party party hat

Proper Adjectives
- are proper nouns used as adjectives or adjectives formed from proper nouns. They modify other nouns and usually begin with a capital letter. Proper Nouns Used as Adjectives Roosevelt the Roosevelt era Maine a Maine lobster

Pronouns Used as Adjectives

Possessive Pronouns or Adjectives my, your, his, her, The man shaved off his beard. its, our, their Demonstrative Adjectives this, that, these, those That test took me two hours. Those roses wilted in the sun. Interrogative Adjectives which, what, whose Which job will you take? Indefinite Adjectives another, each, either, little, Give me another chance. much, neither, one (used w/ sing.) both, few, many, several (plu.) Few people attended the concert. all, any, more, most, other, some (used w/ sing. & plu.) Give me some water, please. I received some gifts.

Compound
Hyphenated : Combined : Separated :

Adjectives
long-term commitment coldblooded animals South American birds

- They are adjectives made up of more than one word.

Verbs Used as Adjectives

The rippling water felt refreshing to them. The washed clothes were neatly folded.
Regular Function Noun The blood coursed through their veins. Pronoun That is my coat. Verb The President vetoed the bill. As an Adjective The blood count was fine. That pottery is beautiful. The vetoed bill was reintroduced.

Adverbs
- words that describe adjectives, verbs or other adverbs. Like adjectives, they are modifiers. - often, but do not always end in -ly. An adverb is often called - tend to tell WHEN?
It rained yesterday. He is coming soon.

HOW?
Tom jogs slowly. It was raining hard.

an intensifier because it increases or decreases the intensity of the word it modifies.

past

future

WHERE?
frequency always sometimes never We are marching forward. Bob is walking downstairs.

yesterday tomorrow last semester soon

The Royal Order of Adverbs

Verb Mary Diane Lois Manner Place in the pool into town in her room Frequency every morning every afternoon every morning Time Purpose swims enthusiastically walks naps impatiently before to keep dawn in shape. before to get a supper newspaper. before lunch.

* In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial

modifiers beyond two or three (at the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of the modifiers could be moved to the beginning of the sentence:

Every afternoon before supper, Diane impatiently walks into the town to get a newspaper.
When that happens, the introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with a comma.

Adverbs
Adverbs Modifying Verbs
Where? The balloon floated up. Your wallet is here. In what manner? The evening quickly passed. I was eagerly awaiting news. When? Your letter arrived today. Now I will go. To what extent? We have just finished eating. She did not warn me.

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives

To what extent? I am extremely hungry.

Adverbs Modifying Adverbs

To what extent? He drives rather carefully.

Nouns Used as Adverbs

- A few words that are usually nouns can function as adverbs that answer the questions Where? or When? Some of these words are home, yesterday, today, tomorrow, mornings, evenings, week, and year. We raced home. (Raced where?) I saw them yesterday. (Saw when?)

Adverb or Adjective?
- Some adverbs and adjectives share the same form. You can distinguish between them by determining the part of speech of the word they modify: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.

ADVERB: ADJECTIVE:

The train arrived early. (Arrived when?) She took the early train to work. (Which train?)

Adverb or Adjective?
- Most adverbs and adjectives, however, do not share the same form. Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. ADJECTIVES: ADVERBS: slow approval, hasty decision approved slowly, decided hastily

- Some adjectives end in -ly too. Do not assume, therefore, that any word ending in -ly is an adverb.
ADJECTIVES: a lonely house, his ghostly smile

Prepositions
- words that express the relation of a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. - Prepositions show the relationship among people, things, and places.

- Prepositions of
Direction
(to and from)

Place
(where)

Time
(when)

to the store from the library toward the floor

in the hall on the ceiling over the fence

in a minute on July 4 at lunch time

Prepositions
aboard about above according to across after against ahead of along alongside amid among apart from around aside from as of atop barring because of before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by by means of concerning despite down during except for from in in addition to in back of in front of in place of inside in spite of instead of into in view of like near next to of off on on account of onto on top of opposite out out of outside over owing to past prior to regarding round since through throughout till to toward under underneath until unto up upon with within without

Prepositions
In the following examples, notice several different ways that prepositions can affect the relationship between words.
LOCATION:
DIRECTION: CAUSE:

The tree fell behind the house.

The tree fell toward the shed. The tree fell on account of the wind.

POSSESSION:

Leaves from the tree littered the lawn in front of our house.

Prepositional Phrases
Prepositions are always part of a group of words called a prepositional phrase. It contains a preposition and a noun or pronoun known as the object of the preposition. Notice in the following examples that a prepositional phrase may contain more than one object. The ice in the lemonade cooled the drink. I saw the movie with her. Shawn checked under the couch and chair.

Although a prepositional phrase can consist of as few as two words, it is usually longer because of the addition of words to modify the object of the preposition. behind her behind the seat behind the newly upholstered car seat

Preposition or Adverb?
Because many words may be used either as prepositions or as adverbs, you may have difficulty in telling them apart. Remember that a preposition must appear with an object of the preposition. Around, down, in, off, on, out, over, and up are some of the words that can function either as prepositions or as adverbs. PREPOSITION: ADVERB: The ball rolled down the steps. The child fell down.

Conjunctions
Unlike prepositions, which simply relate words, conjunctions join words into a single unit. A conjunction is a word used to connect other words or groups of words. 1. Coordinating Conjunction - connect words, phrases or clauses. These conjunctions connect similar parts of speech and groups of words that are grammatically alike. and for or yet but nor so
WITH NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: Her friends and she went sailing. WITH VERBS: The waves thundered and pounded on the shore. WITH ADJECTIVES: The dogs fur is soft, silky, and clean. WITH ADVERBS: The carpenter works quickly but efficiently. WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Turn to the lest or to the right. WITH SUBORDINATE IDEAS: She felt that I could do it but that I wouldnt take the time. WITH COMPLETE IDEAS: They went swimming, for it was very hot.

Conjunctions
2. Correlative Conjunction also join equal elements in sentences, but they always work in pairs. both and not only but also either or whether or neither nor

WITH NOUNS: Neither Lola nor Peter will perform in the play. WITH NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: I do not know whether Al or I won. WITH ADJECTIVES: Yogurt is not only nutritious but also tasty. WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: We saw pelicans both near the pier and along the beach. WITH COMPLETE IDEAS: Either I can go shopping or I can study.

Conjunctions
3. Subordinating Conjunction join two complete ideas by making one of the ideas subordinatethat is, dependent on the other. after because lest till although before now that unless as even if provided until as if even though since when as long as how so that whenever as much as if than where as soon as inasmuch as that wherever as though in order that though while Subordinating Conjunction always begin subordinate clauses, but they need not come between the ideas they connect, as the second example below illustrates:
MAIN IDEA SUBORDINATE IDEA SUBORDINATE IDEA MAIN IDEA

I play soccer, whenever I get the chance.

Now that our cousin is here, we will give a party.

Conjunctions
3. Subordinating Conjunctions Sometimes identifying subordinating conjunctions is difficult since several can also function as prepositions or adverbs. After, before, since, till, and until are often prepositions; after, before, when, and where can also be used as adverbs.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: Before you leave, feed the cat. PREPOSITION: Come home before dark. ADVERB: We had seen the museum before.

Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs used as conjunctions to connect complete ideas. They are often used as transitions, creating bridges between different ideas by showing comparisons, contrasts, or results. accordingly again also besides consequently finally furthermore however indeed moreover nevertheless otherwise then therefore thus

Notice the punctuation that is used before and after the conjunctive adverbs in the following examples: The berries were sweet; nevertheless, I added sugar. The circus starts at 8:00 P.M.; we should, therefore, leave soon. The scholarship examination was difficult; besides, it included poems we had never studied.

Interjections
- an exclamatory word (or words) that shows strong or sudden feeling and has no grammatical function in the construction of a sentence. They are normally set off from the rest of the sentence by an exclamation mark or comma. - can express a variety of feelings, such as joy, fear, anger, surprise, exhaustion, dismay, or sorrow. ah aha alas dear goodness gracious hey hurray oh ouch psst tsk well whew wow

Whew! Im glad thats over. Hey, wait a minute!