CONTENTS

1) STEAM PIPING 2) WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT 3) INFLUENCE OF COMPONENT EFFECIENCIES ON CYCLE PERFORMANCE

STEAM PIPING
The steam piping system is an essential part of steam power plant. These are the following requirements. 1) The piping adopted must ensure maximum reliability. 2) It should be possible to carry out inspection and maintenance without complete shutdown of the plant. 3) Piping should be of necessary size to carry the required flow of fluids. 4) The piping should withstand high temperatures and pressures. 5) The number of fittings and bends required to make the connections should be as minimum as possible. 6) The steam traps should be provided to drain the line and prevent accumulation of water during the steam flow.

STEAM PIPE FITTINGS

Steam pipe fittings are used to assemble piping system and make connections. Fittings can be in the form of screwed or welded fittings. These are generally used in sizes up to 8cm in diameter. For large pipe sizes flanges are used. The various fittings which are in common use are: 1. Elbows 2. Bends 3. Tees 4. Crosses 5. Plugs 6. Reducers.

 Elbows are used to change the directions of two pipes. Tees are used for joining two pipe running's in same direction and to provide outlet for a branch pipe. Reducers are used to join the pipes of different sizes. Plugs and caps are used to close the ends of fittings and pipes. The present day power plants use welded connections for steam lines to make them light. Welding method makes pipe insulation easier.

PIPING SUPPORTS
Steam pipes are usually supported by hangers, brackets, rollers etc. The piping system should be anchored to limit the maximum expansion and contraction strains. The supported pipes should be free to move on their supports in any direction except at the point of anchorage. The supports should be arranged in such a way that any one pipe can be withdrawn without disturbing the piping system. Rigid hangers are used to fasten overhead beams or embedded in concrete. Rollers can be incorporated if axial movement is desired. Spring type hangers can be used when the dimensional changes are caused by temperature variations

DESIGN OF STEAM PIPING

The design of pipe size should include the internal
pressure of steam, thermal expansion restraints and dead weight of pipes, fitting and insulation. The pipe wall thickness to meet the requirement can be calculated using Tm=((d*p)/(2f+Bp))+C Where Tm is minimum thickness of the pipe.(cm) p is the steam pressure. d is the outside diameter f is allowable stress B & C are the constants

The steam flow rate through the pipe is given by ms=A*Vs* To determine the correct size of pipe with least cost, the usual practice is to assume a velocity based on previous experience and use the above equation for determining the diameter if the mass of steam with its condition to be carried is known. The higher the velocity of steam used, the smaller the required size of pipe, but friction loss increases as a square of the velocity. Every care should be taken in the pipe layout to reduce the length of the piping to minimum.

INSULATION OF STEAM PIPING

Bare pipes carrying high temperature steam lose much heat to the atmosphere. 1) It should have high insulating efficiency. 2) It should have high mechanical strength so it will not be affected by vibrations and knocks. 3) It should not be affected by moisture. 4) It should not cause corrosion of pipes if chemically decomposed. 5) It should be able to withstand the temperature to which it is subjected. 6) It should be stable and resist deterioration over the working life of the pipe. 7) It should not be too costly.

The materials commonly used for steam piping insulation are asbestos, magnesia, cork, hair felt, wool felt, rock wool and diatomaceous earth. A very common and effective insulation for temperature up to 4000C is the molded 85% magnesia. A layer of glass silk before giving the layer of magnesia is generally used for pipe insulation when the temperature is above 500oC. Glass silk has an advantage of cleanliness, non-inflammable and can withstand vibration and rough handling without losing its form or thermal efficiency. The heat loss through insulation is given by Q=2**k[(T1-T2 )/ln(r2/r1)] watts

WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT

Waste heat is the heat which is not used and exhausted out as a waste product. Recovery of exhaust heat can reduce fuel consumption and increase thermal efficiency. When the temperature of the exhaust gases exceeds 300oC, steam generation becomes the most economical method. All the available waste heat appears as the low temperature heat. The heat discharged is either in the form of sensible heat or in the form of latent heat. The waste heat is classified into high grade and low grade.

High grade waste heat can be recovered easily through properly designed heat equipments. The most economical method of utilization is by waste heat boiler because steam generated by cooling the gas can be used in the process as well in turbines. These flue gases justify as a viable source of energy for industries as cement, iron, paper, glass and ceramic industries as potential sources for heat recovery. Low grade waste heat is usually in the form of flue gases and drain waters. These are found in food processing and chemical industries.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES FOR WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

To recover the waste heat optimally, it is necessary to bottom the heat energy to the maximum extent and at the same time at its greatest efficiency. Rankine cycles are attractive because they have relatively high efficiency at low temperatures compared to other dynamic energy conversion systems.
Carnot limit % of waste heat That is recovered Practical range

Waste heat temp

The higher the waste stream temperature and lower the cooling medium temperature, the greater is the amount of energy recovered. The bottoming cycles can operate practically in the range shown in the graph. In a diesel engine, 38% of the fuel energy is converted into work and remaining is waste heat. Based on the efficiency limitations of the cycle, only rankine, stirling and absorption cycles can be considered for waste heat temperature of 100-400oC.

HEAT RECOVERY METHODS

1) Sensible heat recovery: The gas-air heaters which are commonly used are of counter-flow type. By selecting various values of Tho , we can calculate the % increase in recovery. To double the heat recovery the area should be increased by three times. The recovery can be increased by increasing the value of U. The optimum heat extraction should be done by increasing A as well as U such a way that extraction of heat costs are minimum.

2) Latent heat recovery: this is the most common method of waste heat recovery when used for power generation. Waste heat boilers can operate in any size and pressure range of 2 to 50bar, the advantages are i. This form of recovery is attractive when latent heat is high ii. A reasonably low temperature difference can be maintained even when recovery is high. iii. They require smaller pipe work as they operate in liquid phase which has high density. iv. It gives higher values of U. v. The system pressure can be kept low.

OTHER USES OF WASTE HEAT

1. Agriculture: spray irrigation and soil heating can be used to prevent the frost production in certain regions. favorable temperatures govern the germination of the seeds and increase the yield. Heated water is used for soil sterilization for cotton seeds. 2. Green houses: it has been suggested that green houses might be constructed adjacent to nuclear plants in cold countries to use the waste heat and replace cooling towers. 3. Animal shelters: the growth rate of some animals is strongly influenced on the environmental temperature. This is particularly more effective for small animals like poultry and swine.

4. Aqua cultural uses: The fish species are cultivated in controlled environments. 5. Waste heat utilization from waste water treatment: municipal and industrial waste water effluents are used as cooling water in power plant. These are being looked upon not as pollutants but as a secondary water source if treated properly using waste heat. 6. Power generation 7. Steam generation which can used for different industrial purposes 8. Can be used as supplementary fuel in boilers. 9. Gas production.

WASTE HEAT BOILERS

INFLUENCE OF COMPONENT EFFICIENCIES ON CYCLE PERFORMANCE

Components of a cycle : 1) Boiler 2) Nozzles 3) Turbine 4) Condenser 5) Feed pump

BOILERS
Evaporative capacity of a boiler is expressed in terms of kg of steam evaporated/hr. Equivalent evaporation may be defined as the amount of water evaporated from water at 100oC to dry and saturated steam at 100oC. As per the standard conditions 1kg of water at 100oC necessitates 2257kJ to get converted to steam at 100oC. Boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat actually utilized in generation of steam to the heat supplied by the fuel in the same period. Boiler efficiency = ma(h-hf)/C

where, ma= mass of water evaporated into steam per kg of fuel at working pressure h= enthalpy of steam/kg @ generating conditions hf= enthalpy of water @ given feed temperature and C = calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg. The factors on which the boiler efficiency depends : 1. Boiler design 2. Built in losses 3. Properties and characteristics of fuel burnt 4. Actual firing rate 5. Conditions of fuel absorbing surfaces 6. Humidity and temperature of the combustion air.

HEAT LOSSES IN A BOILER : 1. Heat lost due to flue gases. The flue gases contain dry products of combustion as well as steam generated due to combustion. The heat lost to flue gases can be reduced by passing the flue gases through the economizer and preheater. 2. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion. The combustion is said to be incomplete if the carbon burns to CO instead of CO2. 1kg of carbon releases 10120 kJ of heat if it burns to CO and can release 33800 kJ/kg if it burns to CO2. This can be reduced by supplying excess quantity of air and giving turbulent motion to the air before it enters the furnace.

3. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel. If mf1 is the mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel used, then heat lost is Q= mf1*C. If solid fuels are used this loss cannot be completely avoided. 4. Convection and radiation heat losses. These losses can be reduced by providing insulation on boiler surface.

NOZZLES
A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of varying cross-section, through which heat energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy. In impulse turbine nozzles are fixed and in reaction turbine are free to move. NOZZLE EFFICIENCY: When the steam flows through a nozzle the final velocity of steam for a given pressure drop is reduced due to following reasons 1. Friction b/n nozzle surface and steam. 2. Internal friction of steam itself. 3. Shock losses.

Most of these frictional losses occur between the throat and exit of the nozzle. The friction tends to decrease the velocity of steam and increase the final dryness fraction or super heat steam. Nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop between the same pressures.

nozzle= (h-ha)/(h-hs)

TURBINE
Steam turbines are classified into 1. Impulse turbine 2. Reaction turbine In the former type steam expands in the nozzles and its pressure does not alter as it moves over the blades while in the latter type the steam expands continuously as it passes over the blades and thus there is a gradual fall in the pressure during expansion.

Impulse turbine
Work done on the blade It is only velocity of whirl which performs work on the blade. Force= mass of steam * acceleration = ms(Cw1-Cw2) Work done on blades/sec=force*distance travelled = ms(Cw1-Cw2)*Cbl Blade or diagram efficiency = (work done on the blades) (Energy supplied to blade)

Stage efficiency

stage=(work done on the blade/kg of steam) (Total energy supplied/kg of steam) stage= blade* nozzle
Overall or turbine efficiency turbine=(heat converted into useful work) (total adiabatic heat drop) It is the overall efficiency that is meant when the efficiency of a turbine is spoken .

EROSION OF TURBINE BLADES

The most effected portion is the back of the inlet edge of the blade, where either grooves are formed or even some portion breaks away. Methods to prevent erosion: i. By raising the temperature of steam at inlet, so that at exit of the turbine the wetness does not exceed 10%. ii. By adopting reheat cycle. iii. Drainage belts are provided on the turbine on outer periphery. iv. The leading edge is provided with a shield of hard material.

LOSSES IN STEAM TURBINES

1) 2) 3) Residual velocity losses: The steam leaves the turbine with some absolute velocity. The energy loss due to absolute exit velocity is 10 to 12%. This loss can be reduced by using multistage. Loss due to friction: friction losses occurs in nozzles, turbine blades and between steam and rotating discs. The loss due to friction is about 10%. Leakage losses: Between turbine shaft and bearings. Leakage of steam through the glands. Leakage at blade tips. The total leakage loss is about 1-2%.

4) Losses due to mechanical friction: The loss due to friction between shaft and bearing comes under this category. Some loss occurs in regulating the valves. This losses can be reduced using a efficient lubrication system. 5) Radiation losses: The heat is lost from turbine to surroundings as its temperature is higher than atmospheric temperature. This losses is usually negligible as turbines are highly insulated. 6) Loss due to moisture: The steam contains water particles passing through the lower stages of turbines as it becomes wet. The velocity of water < velocity of steam and hence part of K.E. of the steam is lost.

CONDENSER
The desirable features of a good condenser are: i. Minimum quantity of circulating water. ii. Minimum cooling surface area per kW capacity. iii. Minimum auxiliary power. iv. Maximum steam condensed per m2 of surface area.

Condenser vacuum pressure

Cooling water temp

AIR LEAKAGE IN CONDENSER

Sources: 1. The air leaks through the joints, packings and glands into the condenser where the pressure is below the atmospheric. 2. The feed water contains air in dissolved condition. The dissolved air gets liberated when the steam is formed and it is carried with the steam into the condenser. Effects: 1. It increases the pressure in condenser or back pressure of the prime mover and reduces the work done/kg of steam. 2. The pressure of air lowers the partial pressure of steam and its corresponding temperature. 3. The heat transfer rates are reduced due to the presence of air as it offers high resistance.

Removal: 1. The air from the condenser is removed with the help of air pumps. 2. The primary function of air pump is to maintain the vacuum in the condenser which corresponds to the exhaust steam temperature by removing the air. 3. Another function of the pump is to remove the condensate coming out from the bottom of the condenser. 4. An air pump which removes both air and condensate is called wet air pump while the pump which removes only moist air is called dry air pump.

VACUUM EFFICIENCY
It is defined as the ratio of the actual vacuum to the maximum obtainable vacuum. The higher vacuum is obtained when there is only steam and no air is present in the condenser.

CONDENSER EFFICIENCY
condenser efficiency is defined as the ratio of the rise in temperature of cooling water to the difference between the temperature corresponding to the vacuum in the condenser and inlet temperature of cooling water.