What is MOBILE COMMUNICATION??

Whats Mobility ??? Does it really mean anything on a go ??? Whats Communication ???

MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Mobility in real terms is the effectiveness of same equipment & services irrespective of an area (geographical location). Communication means interaction of two entities or devices .

What is CELL & BTS

Cell is a geographical area in which a clear radio Signal from one BTS can be sensed. Base Transceiver Station is tall tower with antennas at the top & necessary electronics to generate & manipulate the signals.

Diff b/w Cellular & Non Cellular Communication

In Non Cellular (e.g. radio) Communication a single high power Transmitter used to cover a wide range of area. Cellular Communication network is composed of number of small cells. The reasons are 1. radio signals at the frequencies used for cellular Comm travel only a few kilometers from the point at which they are transmitted. 2. They travel more or less equal distances in all directions; hence, the area around it where a radio signal can be received is typically approximately circular.

 If the network designer wants to cover a large area, then he must have a number of transmitters positioned so that when one gets to the edge of the first cell there is a second cell overlapping slightly, providing radio signal. Hence the construction of the network is a series of approximately circular cells

Diff b/w Cellular & Non Cellular Communication contd

What are the motivations for this?

The aim is to use spectrum or bandwidth efficiently. Bandwidth allocation for voice channels (and data) is limited. Each cell allows one to use a number of radio channels. Adjacent cells use different frequencies. Each cell has a control channel. A call started in one zone has to be re-initiated when moving to a new zone because the call will be dropped.

Why Cells are Theoretically made Hexagons ?

While it might seem natural to choose a circle but adjacent circles cant be overlaid without 1. Leaving gaps. 2. Or creating overlapping regions. Thus when considering geometric shapes, triangle, square & hexagon can cover an entire region. Hexagons are preferred because 1. It closely approximates a circular radiation pattern 2. Among the three, hexagon has the largest area. Hence fewer number of cells can cover entire region.

Why Cells Theoretically made Hexagons ??

The actual radio coverage is known as the footprint. It is determined from the field measurements or propagation prediction model. The real footprint is amorphous in nature.

Area of a Hexagon
What is the Area of hexagon in terms of R??? Hint: s=R R sh

10

Frequency Reuse
Each cell is assigned a part of the available frequency spectrum. Cellular radio systems offer the possibility of using the same part of the frequency spectrum more than once. This is called frequency reuse. Cells with identical channel frequencies are called co-channel cells. The co-channel cells have to be sufficiently separated to avoid interference.

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

The distance between these co-channel cells is achieved by the creation of a cluster of cells. The cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

A cellular system which has a total of n duplex channels If each cell is allocated a group of nc channels (nc < n) if the n channels are divided among N cells the total number of available radio channels can be n = nc * N If a cluster is replicated M times within the system C = M * nc *N = M * n The capacity of cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is replicated
13

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

The factor N is called the cluster size and is typically equal to 4,7,12. The value for N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient quality of communication. If the cluster size N is reduced, more clusters are required to cover a given area and hence more capacity. Large cluster size indicates that the co-channel cells are located far away from each other, hence less interference. So cluster size N is a compromise between capacity & interference.

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

How many cells per cluster ? What is the distance between cells with the same frequency ?

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

the hexagon geometry has exactly six equidistant neighbors and that the lines joining the centers of any co- channel cell are separated by multiples of 60 degrees. there are only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts which are possible. In order to tessellate, the cluster size N should satisfy

N = i2 + ij + j2
where i greater than or equal to j.
17

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

Frequency Reuse Cntd.......

* not valid selections.

Frequency Reuse Cntd.....

Frequency Reuse Distance

An important parameter denoting the amount of frequency reuse in a certain area is called frequency reuse distance Ru. Ru is defined as the ratio of the reuse distance, D, between the centers of the nearest co-channel cells and the cell radius, R.

Frequency Reuse Distance Cntd....

D = R + 2 R sin 30 + R or 3 R Hence D / R = 3. { Note that D / R = ( 3 N ) or 3 }
o

Prove by yourself !!!!!!

Co-Channel Interference
Co -channel interference depends on D / R. D - distance between cells using the same frequency. R - radius of each cell. As D / R increases, co-channel interference decreases.

How many co-channel interfering cells are there in first tier?????

Co-Channel Interference Cntd....

Always 6 in the first tier e.g. N = 3

Co-Channel Interference Cntd....

Co-Channel Interference Cntd....

The ratio of carrier to interference power is given by C / I = carrier power / interference power = C / { I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I6 } since there are 6 interfering cells in the first tier. a The carrier power is proportional { R } where a = propagation path loss slope determined by the actual terrain environment. It varies between 2 and 5 . A value of 4 is usually assumed for a. Hence for a fully developed system, -a a C/I={R} /{6D } if we assume that all distances DI are the same. a C/I=1/{6(D/R) }

Effect of Imperfect Site Location

What is the C/I in this case ?? Hint: Use the same method as did in ideal case.

Here is the answer

C/I = R / {2 (D R) + 2 (D) + 2 (D + R) } -4 -4 -4 = 1 /{ 2 (D/R 1) + 2 (D/R) + 2 (D/R + 1) } For N=7, D/R = (3.N) = 4.5826. C / I = (10 log10 54) or 17 dB i.e. lower than 18 dB. If all the distances are equal to D - R, then -4 -4 C/I = R / 6 (D R) or 28 i.e. 14.5 dB
-4 -4 -4 -4

To further test your patience!!!

1) Obtain C/I for case where three neighbours are at (D+R) & other three are at (D-R)

Now to really add your agony

2) Obtain C/I for the case where only one neighbour in first tier is at (D+R), all other are at (D-R).

Handover / Handoff Mechanism

Handover, also known as handoff, is a process to switch an ongoing call from one cell to the adjacent cell as a mobile user approaches the cell boundary. Handover is an automatic process, if the signal strength falls below a threshold level. It is not noticed by the user because it happens very quicklywithin 200 to 300 ms

The need for a handover may be caused by radio, operation and management (O&M), or by traffic. The main reasons are low signal level or high error rate.

Handover Cntd.......
A handover is performed in three stages.
1. The mobile station (MS) continuously gathers information of the received signal level of the base station (BS) with which it is connected, and of all other BTSs it can detect. 2. This information is then averaged to filter out fastfading effects. The averaged data is then passed on to the decision algorithm, which decides if it will request a handover to another station. 3. When it decides to do so, handover is executed by both the old BS and the MS, resulting in a connection to the new BS.

Handover Cntd.......
To prevent handover resulting from temporary fluctuations in the received signal level, the measurements must be averaged. Longer averaging lengths give more reliable handover decisions, but also result in longer handover delays. So its a bit of a trade-off between handover rate & handover delay

Dwell Time
The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without handoff, is called the dwell time. Even when a mobile user is stationary, ambient motion in the vicinity of the base station and the mobile can produce fading. thus even a stationary subscriber may have a random and finite dwell time. the statistics of dwell time vary greatly, depending on the speed of the user and the type of radio coverage.

Mobile Assisted HandOff (MAHO)

In first generation analog cellular system, signal strength measurement are made by base station and supervised by MSC. Each base station constantly monitors the signal strengths of all of its reverse voice channels to determine the relative location of each mobile user with respect to base station tower. In addition to measuring the RSSI of calls in progress within a cell, a spare receiver in each base station, called the locator receiver, is used to scan and determine signal strengths of mobile users which are in neighboring cells. The locator receiver is controlled by the MSC and is used to monitor the signal strength of users in neighboring cells which appear to be in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC. Based on the locator receiver signal strength information from each base station, the MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.

Mobile Assisted HandOff (MAHO)

In todays second generation system, handoff decisions are mobile assisted. In mobile assisted handover (MAHO), every mobile station measures the received power from the surrounding base stations and continually reports the result of these measurements to the serving base station. A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of a neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base station by a certain level or for a certain period of time. The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between the base stations at much faster rate than in first generation analog systems since the handoff measurements are made by each mobile and the MSC no longer constantly monitors signal strength. MAHO is practically suited for microcell environments where handoffs are more frequent.

Umbrella Cell Approach

problems arise when design for a wide range of mobile velocities. High speed vehicles pass through the coverage region of a cell within a matter of seconds, whereas pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a call. MSC can quickly become burdened if high speed users are constantly being passed between very small cells. In practice it is difficult for cellular service providers to obtain new physical cell site locations in urban areas.(non technical barriers) By using different antenna heights and different power levels, it is possible to provide large and small cells which are co-located at a single location. This technique is called the umbrella cell approach

Umbrella Cell Approach Cntd.

It provides large area coverage to high speed users. And provides small area coverage to users traveling at low speeds. The umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs is minimized for high speed users and provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users.

Umbrella Cell Approach Cntd.

IMPROVING CAPACITY & COVERAGE IN CELLULAR SYSTEM

Cell Splitting
Total number of voice channels = C There are N cells per cluster. Hence the number of voice channels per cell = C / N With traffic growth within a cell, all capacity will be used up. Further growth is only possible by 1. increasing the number of voice channels in the cell, or 2. revising the cell boundaries so that the area formerly regarded as a single cell can now contain several cells.

This latter process is called cell splitting.

Cell Splitting Cntd....

When a cell becomes congested it divides the cell into smaller cell. By this way the subdivided cell has its own base station with small antenna size & low transmitted power. cell has smaller radius and the new smaller cell called the micro cell should be installed between the existing cells. The capacity increases due to the additional number of channel per unit area.

Cell Splitting Cntd....

Cell Splitting Cntd....

Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large cell with smaller, while not upsetting the channel allocation scheme required maintaining the minimum number of cochannel reuse ratio.

Cell Sectoring
Sectoring increase s the SIR so that the cluster size may be reduced. In this approach, first the SIR is improved using the directional antennas, then capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of cells in the cluster, thus increasing the frequency reuse.

Cell Sectoring Cntd.

When sectoring is employed, the channels used in a particular cell are broken down into sectored groups and are used only within particular sector. Assuming seven-cell reuse, for the case of 120 degrees sectors. the number of interferers in the first tier is reduced from six to two.

How come ????

Cell Sectoring Cntd..

Cell Sectoring Cntd..

The reduction in interference increases SIR which allows us to reduce the cluster size. Hence capacity is increased. For example: If N= 7 with 120 degree sectoring, the SIR increases to 24.5 dB.

Can you Prove it ????

Answer for dullards !!!

The worst case carrier to interference ratio is given by -4 -4 -4 C/I = R / { (D + 0.7R) + (D) } -4 -4 = 1 / { (D/R + 0.7) + (D/R) } For N=7, D/R = (3.N) = (21) . Hence -4 -4 C/I = 1 / { ((21) + 0.7) + ((21) ) } or C/I = 24.5 dB.

Cell Sectoring Cntd..

So far we have shown that sectoring improves SIR. Now if we prove that reducing cluster size with sectoring can increase the capacity, our job will be done.

But who will bell the cat ????

Take Some pain Guyzzz !!!!

Calculate C/I for the case of 120 degrees sectoring with N=4 Calculate C/I for 60 degrees sectoring with N=7 Last but not the least Measure C/I for N= 4 & N= 12 with 60 degrees sectoring Give your overall comments about the combination giving best results in terms of capacity & Interference.

Micro Cell Zone Concept

Do you really believe cell sectoring is an ultimate solution ??? Do you think of any disadvantage it contains ???

Micro Cell Zone Concept

The two main disadvantages of sectoring are
1. It increases inter-cell handovers 2. The trunking efficiency is decreased

Micro Cell Zone Concept covers both points

Micro Cell Zone Concept

In this scheme Sectors are converted to zones. mobile travels from one zone to zone to other zone within the cell, it retains the same channel. Thus unlike in sectoring, a handoff is not required at the MSC. In this way a given channel is active only in the particular zone in which the mobile is traveling

Micro Cell Zone Concept

while the cell maintains a particular coverage radius, the co-channel interference in the cellular system is reduced because 1. A large central base station is replaced by several lower powered transmitter on the edges of the of the cell. 2. Decrease co-channel interference improves the signal quality and also leads to an increase in capacity without the degradation in trucking efficiency

Micro Cell Zone Concept

Near Far Effect

As name suggests, its the effect of near users transmission on far user. If both using adjacent channels, the effect is pronounced. If near users power is more, the effect is even more prominent.

Near Far Effect Cntd....

The receiver will not be able to decode far user mainly because 1. Filter are ideally not very sharp. 2. Signal from far user deteriorates enough when reaches BTS.

So whats the solution ?????

Near Far Effect Cntd....

Two proposed solutions are
1. Deployment of POWER CONTROL. 2. Proper distribution of Channel frequencies (adjacent channels should be separated far enough).

Near Far Effect Cntd....

Near Far Effect Cntd....

Cell A1 1 10 19 28 Cell B1 2 11 20 29 Cell C1 3 12 21 30 Cell A2 4 13 22 31 Cell B2 5 14 23 32 Cell C2 6 15 24 33 Cell A3 7 16 25 34 Cell B3 8 17 26 35 Cell C3 9 18 27 36

Cell A1 1 13 25

Cell B1 2 14 26

Cell C1 3 15 27

Cell D1 4 16 28

Cell A2 5 17 29

Cell B2 6 18 30

Cell C2 7 19 31

Cell D2 8 20 32

Cell A3 9 21 33

Cell B3 10 22 34

Cell C3 11 23 35

Cell D3 12 24 36