Power Factor Correction

Power Factor Correction

Power Factor:

Power Factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is consumed

Power Factor Correction

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power to the apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: In alternating current circuits, voltage and current only remain in phase if the load is purely resistive. When this happens the power is said to be 'real power'.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: If instead the load is purely reactive (either Capacitive or Inductive), all of the power is reflected back to the generator. The load is said to draw zero real power, instead it draws only 'reactive power'. If a load is both resistive and reactive, its will have both real and reactive power, resulting in total amount of power called the 'apparent power'.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: In AC power systems, attached loads that store energy behave like combinations of coils (inductors) and capacitors. Coils store power as magnetic fields and cause delay changes in the current (current lags). Capacitors store power as electric charge, and therefore cause advance changes in currents (current leads).

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: The portion of power flow averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform that results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known as real power. The portion of power flow due to stored energy which returns to the source in each cycle is known as reactive power.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: In reality there are losses along AC power transmission lines, due to a purely reactive load, which draws no real power itself, and consumes power because the supplied and reflected power dissipate away on the transmission line, and energy is wasted.

Power Factor:The Beer Analogy

kVAR
Reactive Power

Mug Capacity = Apparent Power (KVA) Foam = Reactive Power (KVAR) Beer = Real Power (kW) kVA
Apparent Power

Power Factor =

Beer (kW) Mug Capacity (KVA)

kW
Active Power

Capacitors provide the Foam (KVAR),

freeing up Mug Capacity so you dont have to buy a bigger mug and/or so you can pay less for your beer !

Power Factor Correction

For this reason an AC load should be designed to have as little reactive power as possible.

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: The following terms are used to describe energy flow in a System. Each of them is assigned with a different unit to differentiate between them):

Power Factor Correction

Real power (P) [Unit: W] Reactive power (Q) [Unit: VAR] Apparent power (S) [Unit: VA]

Power Factor Correction

Real Power and Apparent Power: The unit for all forms of power is the watt (symbol: W). However, this unit is generally reserved for the real power component. Apparent power is conventionally expressed in volt-amperes (VA) since it is the simple product of rms voltage and rms current. The unit for reactive power is given the special name "VAR", which stands for volt-amperes reactive (since reactive power flow transfers no net energy to the load, it is sometimes called "wattless" power).

Power Factor Correction

Significance of the Power Factor
Consider an ideal alternating current (AC) circuit consisting of a source and a generalized load, where both the current and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their polarity at the same time, the direction of energy flow does not reverse, and only real power flows. If the load is purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase and there is no net power flow. This energy flowing backwards and forwards is known as reactive power.

Power Factor Correction

If a capacitor and an inductor are placed in parallel, then the currents flowing through the inductor and the capacitor oppose and tend to cancel out rather than adding. Conventionally, capacitors are considered to generate reactive power and inductors to consume it.

Power Factor Correction

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase, changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference between the current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the source and is not available to do work at the load. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will have higher currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor.

Power Factor Correction

Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, heaters, cooking stoves, etc.) have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (lamp , motors, etc.) often have a power factor below 1.0.

Power Factor Correction

The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies supply customers with volt-amperes, but bill them for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and transmission costs.

An Example to understand the Power Factor

Consider a canal boat being pulled by a horse. If the horse could walk on water then the angle (Phi) would be zero and COSINE =1. Meaning all the horse power is being used to pull the load. However the relative position of the horse influences the power. As the horse gets closer to the barge, angle 1 increases and power is wasted, but, as the horse is positioned further away, then angle 2 gets closer to zero and less power is wasted

Power Factor Correction

Much of the discussion is made about Power Factor. Now we switch towards the means and ways to solve the problem low power factor.

Power Factor Correction

Power factor correction (PFC) is the process of adjusting the characteristics of electric loads that create a power factor that is less than 1.

Power Factor Correction

Power factor correction may be applied either by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network; or, correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity supplier. A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission losses and improve voltage regulation at the load.

Power Factor Correction

Why Power Factor Correction? The current through the reactive component (Ireactive) dissipates no power, and neither does it register on the watt hour meter. However, the reactive current does dissipate power when flowing through other resistive components in the system, like the wires, the switches, and the lossy part of a transformer (Rline). Switches have to interrupt the total current, not just the active component. Wires have to be big enough to carry the entire current, etc. Therefore Correcting the power factor reduces the amount of oversizing necessary.

Power Factor Correction

The introduction of Power Factor Correction capacitors is a widely recognized method of reducing an electrical load, thus minimizing wasted energy and hence improving the efficiency of a plant and reducing the electricity bill.

Power Factor Correction

Active Power Reactive Power Available Active Power

Power Factor Correction

The inductive components, draw Reactive Power (VAr) from the mains. It lags behind the Active Power (W) by 90o (Figure 1). A capacitor, if connected across the mains, will also draw Reactive Power [VAr(c)], but it leads the Active Power (W) by 90o. The direction of the capacitive Reactive Power [VAr(c)] is opposite to the direction of the inductive Reactive Power (VAr) (Figure 2).

Power Factor Correction

Figure-1

Power Factor Correction

Figure-1

Power Factor Correction

The power factor can also be improved by synchronous Motors. These machines draw leading kVAR when they are over-excited and, especially when they are running idle. They are employed for correcting the power factor in bulk and have the special advantage that the amount of correction can be varied by changing their excitation.

Power Factor Correction

The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at full leading power factor and puts VARs onto the network . Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically variable capacitor. Phase advancer can also be used. They are fitted with individual machines.

Power Factor Correction

Most loads on an electrical distribution system fall into one of three categories; resistive, inductive or Capacitive.The most common is inductive load. Typical examples of this include transformers, fluorescent lighting and AC induction motors. Most inductive loads use a conductive coil winding to produce an electromagnetic field, allowing the motor to function. All inductive loads require two kinds of power to operate: Active power (kwatts) - to produce the motive force Reactive power (kvar) - to energise the magnetic field The operating power from the distribution system is composed of both active (working) and reactive (non-working) elements. The active power does useful work in driving the motor whereas the reactive power only provides the magnetic field.

Disadvantages of Poor Power factor

As the power factor drops the system becomes less efficient. A drop from 1.0 to 0.9 results in 15% more current being required for the same load.A power factor of 0.7 requires approximately 43% more current; and a power factor of 0.5 requires approximately 100% (twice as much) to handle the same load. The objective, therefore, should be to reduce the reactive power drawn from the supply by improving the power factor. If an AC motor were 100% efficient it would consume only active power but, since most motors are only 75% to 80% efficient, they operate at a low power factor. This means poor energy and cost efficiency because the Regional Electricity Companies charge you at penalty rates for a poor power factor.

Disadvantages of Poor Power factor

Advantages of Power Factor Correction

The main advantages of the Power Factor Correction are: 1. The electrical load on the Utility is reduced, thereby allowing the Utility to supply the surplus power to other consumers, without increasing its generation capacity. 2. Most of the Utilities impose low power factor penalties. By correcting the power factor, this penalty can be avoided. 3. High power factor reduces the load currents. Therefore, a considerable saving is made in the hardware cost, such as cables, switchgear, substation transformers, etc. 4. Voltage regulation is improved

ACTIVE & REACTIVE POWERS

Most plant loads are Inductive and require a magnetic field to operate:
Motors Transformers Florescent

lighting

The magnetic field is necessary, but produces no useful work The utility must supply the power to produce the magnetic field and the power to produce the useful work: You pay for all of it! These two types of current are the ACTIVE and REACTIVE components

Power Factor Fundamental

Definitions:

Working /Active Power: Normally

measured in kilowatts (kW). It does the "work" for the system--providing the motion, torque, heat, or whatever else is required. Reactive Power: Normally measured in kilovolt-amperesreactive (kVAR), doesn't do useful "work." It simply sustains the electromagnetic field. Apparent Power: Normally

Power Factor Fundamental

Power Factor : A measure of efficiency. The ratio of Active Power (output) to Total Power (input)
Active (Real) Power Total Power Reactive = kW Power (KVAR) Total Power (kVA) kVA = 1.0 Cosine () that A power factor reading close to means = DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR
Active Power (kW)

Power Factor

electrical power is being utilized effectively, while a low power factor indicates poor utilization of electrical power.

LEADING AND LAGGING I

IC
R

IR IL

V ILOAD IC

KVARC KW KVARL

LEADING AND LAGGING

G G

KW

KVAR (LAG)

KW

KVAR (LEAD)

KW

KVAR (LAG)

KW

KVAR (LEAD)

INDUCTION MOTOR

OVER-EXCITED

SYN. MOTOR

Typical Uncorrected Power Factor

(Use only as a Guide)
By Industry Auto parts Brewery Cement Chemical Coal mine Clothing Power Factor 75-80 76-80 80-85 65-75 65-80 35-60 65-70 75-80 70-80 75-80 60-65 65-70 80-90 40-60 55-65 75-80 60-70 65-80 65-75 60-65 By Operation Power Factor 75-80 50-80 35-60 40-60 40-60 40-65 75-90 100 Electroplating Foundry Forge Hospital Machine manufacturing Metalworking Office building Oil-field pumping Paint manufacturing Plastic Stamping Steelworks Textile Tool, die, jig
From IEEE Std 141-1993

Air compressor: External motors Hermetic motors Metal working: Arc welding Arc welding with standard capacitors Resistance welding Machining Melting: Arc furnace Inductance furnace 60Hz Stamping: Standard speed High speed Spraying Weaving: Individual drive Multiple drive Brind

60-70 45-60 60-65

60 70 70-75

WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT POWER FACTOR

MOTOR LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

Why do we care about Power Factor?

In Industrial Facilities, Mostly Induction Motor loads Energy Efficient Motors not optimized for PF Low power factor is caused by oversized or lightly loaded induction motors Low power factor results in:

Poor electrical efficiency! Higher utility bills ** Lower system capacity On the Supply Side, Generation Capacity & Line Losses

Power Factor Correction Capacitors (PFCC) provide an economical means for improving Energy utilization

Why do we install Capacitors?

Before After

In this example, demand was reduced to 8250 kVA from 10000 kVA.

1750KVA Transformer Capacity Release.

The power factor was improved from 80% to 97%

Harmonics
Displacement Power Factor

Total Power Factor

Effects of Harmonics on Capacitors

Linear vs Non-Linear

Until recently, most electrical equipment drew current in a linear fashion:

v

Current (i) & Voltage (v) are both Sinusoidal

Today, many electrical loads draw Current (i) is periodic, but not sinusoidal current v in a i non-linear fashion:

What produces Non-linear Current?

Computers M Variable Frequency Drives Electronic Ballasts Almost anything electronic Fax Machines

Copiers

Time vs Frequency
Time Domain
f1 = 60 H z

Frequency Domain
1 0.5 0 1 3 5 7 9 1 1

60 Hz

f1
f3 = 3 x 60hz = 180 hz

+
180 Hz

1 0.5 0 1 3 5 7 9 1 1

f3
f5 = 5 x 60 hz = 300 hz

+
300 Hz

1 0.5 0 1 3 5 7 9 1 1

f5
f7 = 7 x 60 hz = 420 hz

+
420 Hz

1 0.5 0 1 3 5 7 9 1 1

f7
D isto rted Wave = f1 + f3 + f5 + f7

1 0.5

0 1 3 5 7 9 1 1

Total Harmonic Current Distortion Is Same As

Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

TDD

2 2

+ I

+ I
1

2 4

+L

100 % =
h
= 2

Ih 2
100 %
1

Total or True Power Factor (TPF)

TPF = (DPF) x (Harm Coefficient)
KW DPF = KVA = Cos f 1 1 + TDD2
TPF = Total or true power factor DPF = Displacement power factor Harm coefficient = Harmonic power factor = Cos d

Harm Coefficient =

Total Power Factor Example

VFD ( Six Pulse ) DPF = .95 TDD = 90% ( No Line Reactor)

Harm coefficient =
1 1 + .92 = .7433

TPF = .95 x .7433 = .7061

Applying Capacitors:

Caps at Motors or at SWBD / MCC:

Disadvantage: If Drives are present anywhere, the harmonic currents they produce can flow back to the point of lowest impedance: the capacitor! This will cause premature failure of the capacitor.

VFD

M M M M

How Harmonics Affect Capacitors

Capacitors are naturally a low impedance to high frequencies:

Caps absorb harmonics Caps do not generate harmonics

As capacitor absorbs harmonics, the capacitor heats up

Reduced life expectancy

Voltage harmonics stress the capacitor dielectric

Reduced life expectancy

Parallel combination of capacitors with motor or transformer can cause resonance condition

Resonance

The installation of standard capacitors can magnify harmonic currents on the network

How Harmonics Affect Capacitors:

Resonance:
fr = f 1 XL XC

Resonance XL
( XL-Xc )

X L = 2fl

XC =

1 2 fc

fr

XC

Capacitor Resonance Resonant Point likely to amplify dominant

harmonic (typically 5th)

Magnification of Harmonic Current when Standard Capacitor are Added to the Network

Power Factor Correction With Harmonics:

De-tuning a network:

Force the resonant point away from naturally occurring harmonics

4.2 Harmonic (252 Hz)

I<h5>
Z

Ih5
f
A

f1

f3

f5

f7

f9

We control the impedance of these two elements

UTILITY RATE & PFCC

Most utilities penalize for bad Power Factor...

If the consumer does not correct the power factor, the utility may have to

Build more power plants Install New/ Large transformers Use larger utility cables/ Wires, Switchgear,etc.

Many different rate structures across the country. Typically, penalties are imposed for PF < 95%.

Thousands of Customers across the country are currently unaware that they are being penalized for low power factor!!!

How do utilities charge for Power Factor?

Utilities recoup the cost of providing reactive power in different ways..

kVA billing: utility measures and bills every

ampere of current including reactive current. kW demand billing with Power factor adjustment: utility charges according to kW demand and adds a surcharge for power factor, typically in the form of a multiplier applied to kW demand. kVAR Reactive Demand charge: A direct charge for use of magnetizing power. (example:$ 4.50/kVAR)

Two utilities recently introduced substantial Power Factor Penalties TXU (Texas) $3.50 - $5.50 per kW Demand to 95% pf TVA (Tennessee) $1.46 per kVAR lagging, $1.14 per kVAR leading (April 1, 2004)

MOST COMMON POWER FACTOR RATE CLAUSE

BILLING KW DEMAND =
ACTUAL KW DEMAND X BASE PF/ ACTUAL PF

Penalty Calculation From Utility Bills In TX

BILLING DEMAND (apfa) = KW2 Due to PF Adjustment, KW2 > KW1 *Distribution System Charge = M1 *Nuclear Decommission Charge = M2 *Transition Charge-1 = M3 *Transition Charge-2 = M4 *Transmission Service Charge = M5 *Transmission Cost Recov Factor /apfa =M6 = (KW2-KW1) x $3.55 / apfa = ( KW2-KW1) x $0.044/apfa = (KW2-KW1) x $0.177/ apfa = (KW2-KW1) x $0.272 / apfa = (KW2-KW1) x $1.19 / apfa = (KW2-KW1) x $0.27103 & ACTUAL DEMAND = KW1

CAPACITOR LOCATION & TYPE

Capacitor Locations

Three Options for Applying Power Factor Capacitors:

A) Fixed capacitors @ individual motors or @ MCC B) Automatic Banks at Main Switch Board C) De-tuned Automatic Capacitor Bank at Main Switch Board

M A B C A

M M M M

Harmonic Source e.g. Variable Speed Drive

Fixed Capacitors - Low Voltage

Main Benefit

pf correction

Side Benefit

voltage support Small I2R reduction

Correcting pf on individual loads such as motors Overcompensation (correct past unity) Not to be used on non-linear loads Unable to track minute by minute load changes occurring on noncompensated feeders

Usage

Disadvantages

Standard Automatic Capacitor Systems

Main Benefit

pf correction voltage support Small I2R reduction Correcting pf on entire MCCs or substations Not to be used on non-linear loads

Side Benefit

Usage

Application alert

Anti-Resonant Automatic Cap. Bank

Automatic Cap. Bank with a reactors in series Reactors tuned to 4.2 or 4.4 Use where Non-Linear Loads less than 50% of total loads.

Transient Free De-Tuned Automatic Cap. Banks

For sensitive networks Similar to Anti-resonant Automatic Capacitor System except solid state switching Reactor tuned to 4.2 or 4.4

Electronic Switch Transient L1 L2 L3 Free

Fuses SCR-Diode

De-tuned Inductor

Rule Of Thumb For PFCC Applications

* When Non-Linear Loads < 15% Of Total Loads Select Standard Automatic Cap. Bank * When Non-linear Loads >15% But < 50% Of Total Loads Select Anti-Resonant (Detuned) Auto. Cap. Bank * When Non-Linear Loads > 50% Of Total Loads Select Active Harmonics Filter For VAR Correction * When Transformer KVA To Cap. KVAR Ratio < 3 Select Anti-Resonant ( Detuned) Auto. Cap. Bank

* When Soft-Starters are present, select Detuned Auto. Cap. Bank

ACTIVE FILTER in VAR Correction Mode

Cyclical Loads & Loads With Dynamic VAR Movements

CAUSES

WELDING OPERATIONS LARGE HP MOTOR STARTING PROCESS LOADS (i.e. MIXERS, CRUSHERS, CHIPPERS, SHREDDERS) ARC FURNACES

RESULTING IN
VOLTAGE FLICKER VOLTAGE SAGS POOR POWER FACTOR INABILITY TO START MOTORS

Active Filter (AHF)

For Power Factor Correction For System where Non-Linear Loads > than 50% of Total Loads. When Fast VAR Movements Necessary AHF-New breed of power quality product

Harmonics cancellation Power factor correction VAR compensation Resonance elimination

Independent or simultaneous modes of operation

Active Harmonics Filter

Electronic filtering up to the 50th harmonic I source I load

Power source Non-linear load
I conditioner
Active Harmonic Conditioner

Combination of passive & active technologies

Hybrid Filters

MV HVC Banks General Layout

MAIN INCOMING INTERFACE WITH CUSTOMER'S NETWORK

15kV HVL LINEUP NEMA 3R

4000kVA, 13.8kV/480V NEMA 3R

5000A, 480V MAINS NEMA 1

2000A, 480V NEMA 1

4x300A ACCUSINE 6000kVAR, 13.8kV, 60Hz FIXED, DE-TUNED NEMA 3R

4x300A 4x300A ACCUSINE ACCUSINE

4x300A ACCUSINE

4x300A 4x300A ACCUSINE ACCUSINE

POWER ZONE HOUSE 1

POWER ZONE HOUSE 2

24X300A ACCUSINE -> 6000kVAR

PASSIVE

ACTIVE

HVC Banks General

Marriage of two technologies Fixed capacitor banks and AHF Auxiliaries: MV/LV SWGR

HVC
15000

Vars Leading/Lagging

10000 Fixed Kvar 5000 0 Load Accusine Result Kvar

10

12

14

16

-5000 -10000

Time in cycles

18

Cyclical Loads & Loads With Dynamic VAR Movements

CAUSES

SOLUTIONS
APPLICATION OF:
HYBRID VAR COMPENSATION (HVC)

WELDING OPERATIONS LARGE HP MOTOR STARTING PROCESS LOADS (i.e. MIXERS, CRUSHERS, CHIPPERS, SHREDDERS) ARC FURNACES

RESULTING IN
VOLTAGE FLICKER VOLTAGE SAGS POOR POWER FACTOR INABILITY TO START MOTORS

DYNAMIC VAR INJECTION ON PER CYCLE BASIS PASSIVE/ACTIVE SYSTEM ARRANGEMENT WITH INRUSH OR DE-TUNED REACTORS CUSTOM-ENGINREERED FOR SPECIFIC SITE, NETWORK, LOAD CHARACTERISTIC NEEDS

CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS AT MOTOR TERMINAL > Motor Overload Protection > Re-closure Issue Jogging , Reversing, Inching , Plugging Applications

Capacitor At Motor Terminal Motor Over Load Protection Issue

Voltage Influenced By Capacitor Ratings

Reclosed Breaker & Net Voltage

CAPACITOR APPLICATION ISSUES

Multi-Energy Power System of the Future ?

Hospital with cogeneration (1.5 MW) Residential photovoltaic system (6 kW) Residential Fuel cell (7 kW)

Utility-owned wind turbine site (1 MW)

Substation

Small wind turbine (10 kW)

Utility-owned Photovoltaic site (500 kW)

Factory with natural gas fuel cell (100 kW to 5 MW)

Utility & Customer Owned

Solar Power System Working In Parallel

1000 KW

3000 KW

Cos 2= 0.55

Cos 1= 0.89

1818 KVA

1537 KVA

1537 KVAR 1537 KVAR

ask Customer

Applications Are you being charged for poor power factor by your

For Capacitor

utility (ask for a copy of their electric bill - kW, kVA, Power Factor)? Do you have a large number of drives, rectifiers or other harmonic generating equipment? Do you have nuisance tripping of overloads ? Do you have welders, chippers, or other large cyclical loads? Do you have problems with voltage sags or flicker? How sensitive is your equipment to these power issues? Do you have capacity issues on any of your substations? Do you have HID lighting or critical processes with low tolerance to brownouts? Have you been experiencing poor weld quality? Do you have Soft Starters in the System?

Standards

Capacitor

NEMA CP-1 for Shunt Capacitors UL 810 Standard for Capacitors NFPA 70, National Electrical Code IEEE Standard 399, Power System Analysis ANSI / IEEE Standard 18, Shunt Power Capacitors IEEE Standard 141, Recommended Practice for Electrical Power Distribution for Industrial Plants

Other Capacitor Application Issues

NEC & NEMA :
* The Ampacity of Capacitor Circuit Conductors shall not be less than 135% of rated Capacitor Current * Breaker Rating based on 135% Rated Capacitor Current * Fuse Rating based on 165% Rated Capacitor Current for Class R Time Delay * Fusible Switch Rating based on 165% Rated Capacitor Current

Capacitor Operating Environment Issues

Capacitor When Properly Applied Will Have Long Life. Conditions that affect the Life of Capacitor: * Ambient Temp. < 46Deg C or 115Deg F
* Case Temp. of Capacitor < 55Deg C or 131 Deg F * Shunt Capacitor designed to operate at 110% Rated Voltage. * Avoid sustained Over Voltage

Summary of Benefits:

Reduced Power Costs:

Since Capacitors supply reactive power, you dont pay the utility for it Depending up on location of Cap. Bank, Line Loss can be reduced. You can calculate the savings

Off-load transformers

Defer buying a larger transformer when adding loads

Reduce voltage drop at loads

Only if capacitors are applied at loads (minimal benefit at best)

A2

Thank You ! Questions?